Контрольная работа по "Английскому языку"

Protostars 
“Stellar embryology” takes a step forward with the first detailed look at the youngest Sun-like stars 
 

Anatomists have been studying the embryonic development of animals for centuries. Their detailed descriptions of tissue growth may have reached a high art, but a theoretical understanding of how the embryo undergoes its remarkable transformation from a single cell to a crying infant lags far behind. Until recently, the field of astrophysics had been struggling with a nearly opposite problem. Theoretical models of how a star forms—its embryonic development from a cold cloud of interstellar gas to a blazing furnace of nuclear fusion—had outpaced the astronomer’s ability to observe the process. It’s as if developmental biologists had identified the major stages in the growth of an embryo with only the crudest views of their subject.

This peculiar state of affairs in astrophysics is largely due to the reclusive nature of embryonic stars. A stellar embryo grows in a cloudy womb of molecular gas, which is so choked with dust that visible light has little hope of passing through. A view of these molecular clouds in even the largest optical telescope would reveal little more than a dark patch of sky. Observations are further hindered by the forbidding distances to the stars. The nearest region of stellar birth is more than 400 light-years away. At such distances, a prenatal star the size of our Sun is exceedingly dim.

Despite such impediments, astrophysicists have been able to piece together the broad outlines of how a low-mass (Sun-like) star forms. It’s a surprisingly complex process. Although it may involve the simplest of elements and molecules, the making of a star is directed by a maelstrom of competing forces—including gravitational collapse, magnetic fields, nuclear processes, thermal pressures and fierce stellar winds—all of which wish to have their way with the unformed star. Because the interaction of these forces is not fully understood, there is much that remains mysterious about the birth of a star. How exactly does a growing star accrete matter from its surroundings, and how does the process stop? Why do stars form in the numbers and range of sizes that they do? And why do some stars form planetary systems? These are fundamental questions that cannot be answered without actually observing the process of star formation.

Fortunately, the field of stellar embryology has recently turned a corner as an observational science. Although visible light is unable to penetrate the dusty cloud that swaddles a prenatal star, the longer wavelengths of infrared radiation can easily slip through the dust and so escape the inner confines of the cloud. Such radiation has been detected for decades, but until recently infrared telescopes have lacked the sensitivity and resolution to provide detailed information about the youngest prenatal stars, the protostars. With the development of giant telescopes and extremely sensitive infrared detectors in the past decade, astronomers have now been able to observe these secluded stellar embryos. My colleagues and I have been among the privileged few to witness some of the earliest stirrings of a star’s life.

Baby Steps to Stardom

The process of making a star begins inside enormous clouds of interstellar gas and dust that lie primarily within the plane of the Galaxy (Figure 1). Consisting chiefly of molecular hydrogen (H₂), the largest of these giant molecular clouds may be several hundred light-years across and weigh as much as 100,000 solar masses. These clouds have an average density of about 100 H₂ molecules per cubic centimeter, but they are far from being homogeneous. Some regions may have a density of 10,000 molecules or more per cubic centimeter, or more than 1,000 times the density of the most rarefied parts of the cloud. A molecular cloud may have many such dense cores (each of which may become a star), but the star-formation process is not very efficient, as a 100,000-solar-mass cloud never yields 100,000 Sun-sized stars. In fact, the conversion efficiency of cloud mass to stellar mass probably averages less than 10 percent. 
 

Giant molecular clouds are supported against their weight by thermal pressure, turbulent gas motions and magnetic fields within, but at some point their dense cores become gravitationally unstable and begin to collapse

The center of the collapsing core becomes a protostar, which, as the name suggests, is the first step toward stardom. The protostar’s life (lasting about 100,000 years) is defined by the rapid accumulation of mass from the surrounding envelope of gas and dust

It does so at the rate of a few millionths of a solar mass—equivalent to one Earth-sized planet—every year. Coinciding with the onset of accretion is a steady outflow of material in powerful winds that emanate from the poles of the young star. These bipolar jets are telltale signs of a protostellar system, and it is ironic that protostars are often detected by the jets that shed mass from the system, rather than the process of accretion

Throughout this period, the protostar progressively increases in density as it shrinks in size. The infalling material, which had been rotating relatively slowly around the dense core, begins to speed up as the radius of the protostar decreases. The angular momentum—which is the product of rotational velocity and radius—of the core material remains constant, so material rotates faster as it gets closer to the protostar. Slowly moving material falls directly onto the protostar, but some of the gas and dust is moving so quickly that it travels in an orbit instead. Since all of the material in the envelope surrounding the protostar rotates in the same direction, the matter falls into orbits of various sizes depending on its velocity, and so forms a circumstellar disk. Most matter eventually flows onto the protostar through the disk, but some of it remains in orbit. As the surrounding envelope of dust disperses, the accretion process stops, and the central globe of gas is no longer considered to be a protostar; it is now a pre-main-sequence (or PMS) star. (Protostars and PMS stars are often grouped under the term young stellar objects, which neatly includes all prenatal stars.)

The pre-main-sequence phase of evolution lasts for tens of millions of years. In its earliest phases, the first few million years or so, these objects are often called T Tauri stars, a name derived from the archetypical star in the constellation Taurus. Having shed their dusty envelopes, T Tauri stars are the youngest objects that can be seen with an optical telescope. They are still surrounded by a disk of dust and gas—often called a protoplanetary disk at this stage—and may continue to eject material in their bipolar jets. After a few million years, much of the dust and gas in the protoplanetary disk dissipates, leaving a bare PMS star in the center. In some instances, a few large bodies may continue to orbit the star in a remnant debris disk (Figure 5). The planets, moons and asteroids of our solar system all had their beginnings in such a disk.