Контрольная работа по "Английскому языку"

January 2002 issue

The Gas between the Stars

Filled with colossal fountains of hotgas and vast bubbles blown by exploding stars, the interstellar medium is far more interesting than scientists once thought

By Ronald J. Reynolds  

We often think of the moon as a place, but in fact it is a hundred million places, an archipelago of solitude. You could go from100 degrees below zero to 100 degrees above with a small step. You could yell in your friend's ear and he would never hear you. Without an atmosphere to transmit heat or sound, each patch of the moon is an island in an unnavigable sea.

The atmosphere of a planet is what binds its surface into a unified whole. It lets conditions such as temperature vary smoothly. More dramatically, events such as the impact of an asteroid, the eruption of a volcano and the emission of gas from a factory's chimney can have effects that reach far beyond the spots where they took place. Local phenomena can have global consequences. This characteristic of atmospheres has begun to capture the interest of astronomers who study the Milky Way galaxy.

For many years, we have known that an extremely thin atmosphere called the interstellar medium envelops our galaxy and threads the space between its billions of stars. Until fairly recently, the medium seemed a cold, static reservoir of gas quietly waiting to condense into stars. You barely even notice it when looking up into the starry sky. Now we recognize the medium as a tempestuous mixture with an extreme diversity of density, temperature and ionization. Supernova explosions blow giant bubbles; fountains and chimneys may arch above the spiral disk; and clouds could be falling in from beyond the disk. These and other processes interconnect far-flung reaches of our galaxy much as atmospheric phenomena convey disturbances from one side of Earth to the other.

In fact, telescopes on the ground and in space are showing the galaxy's atmosphere to be as complex as any planet's. Held by the combined gravitational pull of the stars and other matter, permeated by starlight, energetic particles and a magnetic field, the interstellar medium is continuously stirred, heated, recycled and transformed. Like any atmosphere, it has its highest density and pressure at the "bottom," in this case the plane that defines the middle of the galaxy, where the pressure must balance the weight of the medium from "above." Dense concentrations of gas--clouds--form near the midplane, and from the densest subcondensations, stars precipitate.

When stars exhaust their nuclear fuel and die, those that are at least as massive as the sun expel much of their matter back into the interstellar medium. Thus, as the galaxy ages, each generation of stars pollutes the medium with heavy elements. As in the water cycle on Earth, precipitation is followed by "evaporation," so that material can be recycled over and over again.

Up in the Air

Thinking of the interstellar medium as a true atmosphere brings unity to some of the most pressing problems in astrophysics. First and foremost is star formation. Although astronomers have known the basic principles for decades, they still do not grasp exactly what determines when and at what rate stars precipitate from the interstellar medium. Theorists used to explain the creation of stars only in terms of the local conditions within an isolated gas cloud. Now they are considering conditions in the galaxy as a whole.

Not only do these conditions influence star formation, they are influenced by it. What one generation of stars does determines the environment in which subsequent generations are born, live and die. Understanding this feedback--the sway of stars, especially the hottest, rarest, most massive stars, over the large-scale properties of the interstellar medium--is another of the great challenges for researchers. Feedback can be both positive and negative. On the one hand, massive stars can heat and ionize the medium and cause it to bulge out from the midplane. This expansion increases the ambient pressure, compressing the clouds and perhaps triggering their collapse into a new generation of stars. On the other hand, the heating and ionization can also agitate clouds, inhibiting the birth of new stars. When the largest stars blow up, they can even destroy the clouds that gave them birth. In fact, negative feedback could explain why the gravitational collapse of clouds into stars is so inefficient. Typically only a few percent of a cloud's mass becomes stars.

A third conundrum is that star formation often occurs in sporadic but intense bursts. In the Milky Way the competing feedback effects almost balance out, so that stars form at an unhurried pace--just 10 per year on average. In some galaxies, however, such as the "exploding galaxy" M82, positive feedback has gained the upper hand. Starting 20 million to 50 million years ago, star formation in the central parts of M82 began running out of control, proceeding 10 times faster than before. Our galaxy, too, may have had sporadic bursts. How these starbursts occur and what turns them off must be tied to the complex relation between stars and the tenuous atmosphere from which they precipitate.

Finally, astronomers debate how quickly the atmospheric activity is petering out. The majority of stars--those less massive than the sun, which live tens or even hundreds of billions of years--do not contribute to the feedback loops. More and more of the interstellar gas is being locked up into very long lived stars. Eventually all the spare gas in our Milky Way may be exhausted, leaving only stellar dregs behind. How soon this will happen depends on whether the Milky Way is a closed box. Recent observations suggest that the galaxy is still an open system, both gaining and losing mass to its cosmic surroundings. High-velocity clouds of relatively unpolluted hydrogen appear to be raining down from intergalactic space, rejuvenating our galaxy. Meanwhile the galaxy may be shedding gas in the form of a high-speed wind from its outer atmosphere, much as the sun slowly sheds mass in the solar wind.

Hot and Cold Running Hydrogen

To tackle these problems, those of us who study the interstellar medium have first had to identify its diverse components. Astronomers carried out the initial step, an analysis of its elemental composition, in the 1950s and 1960s using the spectra of light emitted by bright nebulae, such as the Orion Nebula. In terms of the number of atomic nuclei, hydrogen constitutes 90 percent, helium about 10 percent, and everything else--from lithium to uranium--just a trace, about 0.1 percent.

Because hydrogen is so dominant, the structure of the galaxy's atmosphere depends mainly on what forms the hydrogen takes. Early observations were sensitive primarily to cooler, neutral components. The primary marker of interstellar material is the most famous spectral line of astronomy: the 1,420-megahertz (21-centimeter) line emitted by neutral hydrogen atoms, denoted by astronomers as H i. Beginning in the 1950s, radio astronomers mapped out the distribution of H i within the galaxy. It resides in lumps and filaments with densities of 10 to 100 atoms per cubic centimeter and temperatures near 100 kelvins, embedded in a more diffuse, thinner (roughly 0.1 atom per cubic centimeter) and warmer (a few thousand kelvins) phase. Most of the H i is c h lose to the galactic midplane, forming a gaseous disk about 300 parsecs (1,000 light-years) thick, roughly half the thickness of the main stellar disk you see when you notice the Milky Way in the night sky.