Лекции по "Английскому языку"

Phraseology

Part 2

1. N.N. Amosova's approach is contextological. She defines phraseological units as units of fixed context. Fixed context is defined as a context characterised by a specific and unchanging sequence of definite lexical components, and a peculiar semantic relationship between them. Units of fixed context are subdivided into phrasemes and idioms. Phrasemes are always binary: one component has a phraseologically bound meaning, the other serves as the determining context (small talk, small hours, small change). In idioms the new meaning is created by the whole, though every element may have its original meaning weakened or even completely lost: in the nick of time 'at the exact moment'. Idioms may be motivated or demotivated. A motivated idiom is homonymous to a free phrase, but this phrase is used figuratively: take the bull by the horns 'to face dangers without fear. In the nick of time is demotivated, because the word nick is obsolete. Both phrasemes and idioms may be movable (changeable) or immovable.

2. A.V. Koonin's classification is based on the functions the units fulfil in speech. They may be nominating (a bull in a china shop), interjectinal (a pretty kettle of fish), communicative (familiarity breeds con-tempt), or nominating-communicative (pull somebody's leg). Further classification into subclasses depends on whether the units are changeable or unchangeable, whether the meaning of the one element remains free, and, more generally, on the interdependence between the meaning of the elements and the meaning of the set expression.

3. Formal classification distinguishes set expressions that are nominal phrases: the root of the trouble; verbal phrases: put one's best foot forward; adjectival phrases: as good as gold; red as a cherry; adverbial phrases. from head to foot; prepositional phrases: in the course of; conjunctional phrases: as long as, on the other hand, interjectional phrases: Well, I never!

A stereotyped sentence also introduced into speech as a ready-made formula may be illustrated by Never say die! 'never give up hope', take your time 'do not hurry'.

This classification takes into consideration not only the type of component parts but also the functioning of the whole, thus, tooth and nail is not a nominal but an adverbial unit, because it serves to modify a verb (e. g. fight tooth and nail)

Within each of these classes a further subdivision is as follows:

a) Set expressions functioning like nouns:

N+N:  maiden name 'the surname of a woman before she was mar-ried'; brains trust 'a committee of experts'

N's+N: cat's paw 'one who is used for the convenience of a cleverer and stronger person' (the expression comes from a fable in which a monkey wanting to eat some chestnuts that were on a hot stove, but not wishing to burn himself while getting them, seized a cat and holding its paw in his own used it to knock the chestnuts to the ground)

Ns'+N: ladies' man 'one who makes special effort to charm or please women'.

N+prp+N: the arm of the law, skeleton in the cupboard. N+A:  blight errant (the phrase is today applied to any chivalrous man ready to help and protect oppressed and helpless people). N+and+N: lord and master 'husband'; all the world and his wife. A+N: high tea 'an evening meal which combines meat or some similar extra dish with the usual tea'. N+ subordinate clause: ships that pass in the night 'chance acquaintances'.

b) Set expressions functioning like verbs: V+N: take advantage

V+and+V: pick and choose

V+(one's)+N+(prp): snap one's fingers at

V+one+N: give one the bird 'to fire sb'

V+subordinate clause: see how the land lies 'to discover the state of affairs'.

c) Set expressions functioning like adjectives: A+and+A: high and mighty

(as)+A+as+N: as old as the hills, as mad as a hatter

d) Set expressions functioning like adverbs: N+N: tooth and nail

prp+N: by heart, of course adv+prp+N: once in a blue moon prp+N+or+N: by hook or by crook cj+clause: before one can say Jack Robinson

e) Set expressions functioning like prepositions: prp+N+prp: in conse-quence of

f) Set expressions functioning like interjections:

These are often structured as imperative sentences: Bless (one's) soul! God bless me! Hang it (all)!

4. Phraseological stability is based upon:

a) the stability of use;

b) the stability of meaning;

c) lexical stability;

d) syntactic stability;

e) rhythmic characteristics, rhyme and imagery.

5. Proverbs, sayings, familiar quotations and cliches.

The place of proverbs, sayings and familiar quotations with respect to set expressions is a controversial issue. A proverb is a short familiar epigrammatic saying expressing popular wisdom, a truth or a moral lesson in a concise and imaginative way. Proverbs have much in common with set expressions, because their lexical components are also constant, their meaning is traditional and mostly figurative, and they are introduced into speech ready-made. Another reason why proverbs must be taken into consideration together with set expressions is that they often form the basis of set expressions. E. g. the last straw breaks the camel's back::the last straw; a drowning man will clutch at a straw::clutch at a straw; it is useless, to lock the stable door when the steed is stolen: :lock the stable door.

As to familiar quotations, they are different from proverbs in their origin. They come from literature but by and by they become part of the language, so that many people using them do not even know that they are quoting, and very few could accurately name the play or passage on which they are drawing even when they are aware of using a quotation from W. Shakespeare.

The Shakespearian quotations have become and remain extremely numerous — they have contributed enormously to the store of the language. Very many come from "Hamlet", for example: Something is rotten in the state of Denmark; Brevity is the soul of wit; The rest is silence; Thus conscience does make cowards of us all; There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio

Some quotations are so often used that they come to be considered cliches. The term is used to denote such phrases as have become hackneyed and stale. Being constantly and mechanically repeated they have lost their original expressiveness. The following are perhaps the most generally recognised: the acid test, ample opportunities, astronomical figures, the arms of Morpheus, to break the ice, the irony of fate, etc.

 

Exercise 1.

Find phraseological units in the sentences given below. Translate phraseological units. Compare them with the relevant word-groups. Comment upon difference between free word-group and phraseologi-cal unit. Answer the questions following.

1, I've let the cat out of the bag already, Mr. Corthall, and I might as well tell the whole thing now. 2. Suddenly Sugar screwed up his face in pain and grabbing one foot in his hands hopped around like a cat on hot bricks. "Can't we get a tram, Jack? My feet is giving me hell in these nov (new) shoes." 3. No doubt a life devoted to pleasure must sometimes show the reverse side of the medal. 4. The day's news has knocked the bottom out of my life. 5. Cowperwood had decided that he didn't care to sail under any false colours so far as Addison was concerned. 6. Falstaff... I was beaten myself into all the colours of the rainbow. 7. About three weeks after the elephant's disappearance I was about to say. one morning, that I should have to strike my colours and retire, when the great detective arrested the thought by proposing one more superb and masterly move. 8. We lived among bankers and city big wigs.

Questions:

1.What do we mean by the term 'fixed context'? Do phraseological units given above belong to 'phrasemes' or 'idioms'?

2. To which group do these phraseological units belong if we follow V.V.Vinogradov's classification?

 

Exercise 2.

In the following sentences, there is an idiom in bold. Decide on the key word, then look in your dictionary to see if you are right. Suggest a non-idiomatic variant.

1. Don't believe what he said about Trish. He was talking through his hat. He doesn't even know her.

2. Come here! I've got a bone to pick with you! Why did you tell Anne about ken and me splitting up? I told you not to tell anyone.

3. I don't think correct spelling is terribly important, but my teacher has a bee in his bonnet about it. If I ever make a spelling mistake, he makes us write it out twenty times.

4. Ford Motors have a new saloon car in the pipeline, and it will be revealed for the first time at next year's Motor Show.

5. You have to be careful with sales people. They have the gift of the gab. Suddenly you can find you've bought something that you really didn't want.

6. The company has put forward many reasons why it can't offer a substantial pay rise. The reason, in a nutshell, is that the company is very nearly bankrupt.

7.- I met a man called Anthony Trollope.

- Mmm. The name rings a bell, but I can't put a face to it.

8.- Come on, John! Who is right, me or Peter?

- Don't ask me to decide. I'm sitting on the fence.

 

Exercise3.

Determine which of the underlined word-combinations are phraseological units.

1. Where do you think you lost your purse? 2. When losing the game one shouldn't lose one's temper. 3. Have a look at the reverse side of the coat. 4. The reverse side of the medal is that we'll have to do it ourselves. 5. Keep the butter in the refrigerator. 6. Keep an eye on the child. 7. He threw some cold water upon her. Wake up. 8. I didn't expect that he would throw cold water upon our project. 9. The tourists left the beaten track and saw a lot of interesting places, 10. The author leaves the beaten track and offers a new treatment of the subject. 11. I don't want to have a bushman's holiday. 12. Let's stretch a point for him. 13. The weak go to the wall. 14. She looks as if butter wouldn't melt in her mouth.

 

Exercise 4.

The following expressions can help you to describe people. Think literally and figuratively of people who

have head for heights

have got light fingers

are feeling under the weather

spend money like water

have got ants in their pants

have good ear for music

are in the red

hace recently been given the brush off by somebody

easily fly off the handle

 

 

 

 

 

 

Exercise 5.

Study the following expressions. What classification would you apply to them?

Dutch feast

Dutch courage

Dutch wife

Dutch bargain

French window

French disease