Лекции по "Английскому языку"

PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENT 1

Read the following extracts and explain the semantic processes by which the italicized words acquired their meanings.

1. 'Bureau', a desk, was borrowed from French in the 17th с. In Modern French (and English) it means not only the desk but also the office itself and the authority exercised by the office. Hence the familiar bureaucracy is likely to become increasingly familiar. The desk was called so because covered with bureau, a thick coarse cloth of a brown russet.

(From The Romance of Words by E. Weekley)

An Earl of Spencer made a short overcoat fashionable for some time. An Earl of Sandwich invented a form of light refreshment which enabled him to take a meal without leaving the card-table. Hence we have such words as spencer and sandwich in English.

(From The Romance of Words by E. Weekley)

A common name for overalls or trousers is jeans. In the singular jean is also a term for a durable twilled cotton and is short for the phrase jean fustian which first appeared in texts from the sixteenth century. Fustian (a Latin borrowing) is a cotton or cotton and linen fabric, and jean is the modern spelling of Middle English Jene or Gene, from Genes, the Middle French name of the Italian city Genoa, where it was made and shipped abroad.

(From The Merriam-Webster Book of Word Histories)

Formally barn meant "a storehouse for barley"; today it has widened to mean "any kind of storehouse" for animals or equipment as well as any kind of grain. The word picture used to refer only to a representation made with paint; today it can be a photograph or a representation made with charcoal, pencil or any other means. A pen used to mean "feather" but now has become generalized to include several kinds of writing implements — fountain, ballpoint, etc. The meaning of sail as limited to moving on water in a ship with sails has now generalized to mean "moving on water in any ship".

(From Teaching English Linguistically by J. Malmstrom, J. Lee)

 

PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENT 2

Read the following extract and criticize the author's treatment of the examples. Provide your own explanations.

Words degenerate in meaning also. In the past villain meant "farm labourer"; counterfeiter meant "imitator" without criminal connotations, and sly meant "skilful". A knave meant a "boy" and immoral meant "not customary", and hussy was a "housewife". **

Other words improve in meanings. Governor meant "pilot" and constable meant "stable attendant". Other elevations are enthusiasm which formally meant "fanaticism", knight which used to mean "youth", angel which simply meant "messenger" and pretty which meant "sly". No one can predict the direction of change of meaning, but changes occur constantly.

(From Teaching English Linguistically by J. Malmstrom, J. Lee)

 

PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENT 3

Explain the logical associations in the following groups of meaning for the same words. Define the type of transference which has taken place.

1. The .wing of a bird — the wing of a building; the eye of a man — the eye of a needle; the hand of a child — the hand of a clock; the heart of a man — the heart of the matter; the bridge across-the-river — the bridge of the nose; the tongue of a person — the tongue of a bell; the tooth of a boy — the tooth of a comb; the coat of a girl — the coat of a dog.

2. Green grass — green years; black shoes — black despair; nickel (metal) — a nickel (coin); glass — a glass; copper (metal) — a copper (coin); Ford (proper name) — a Ford (car); Damascus (town in Syria) — damask; Kashmir (town in North India) — cashmere.

 

 

 

 

PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENT 4

Analyse the process of development of new meanings in the italicized words in the examples given below.

1. I put the letter well into the mouth of the box and let it go and it fell turning over and over like an autumn leaf. 2. Those who had been the head of the line paused momentarily on entry and looked around curiously. 3. A cheerful-looking girl in blue jeans came up to the stairs whistling. 4. Seated behind a desk, he wore a light patterned suit, switch from his usual tweeds. 5. Oh, Steven, I read a Dickens the other day. It was awfully funny. 6. They sat on the rug before the fireplace, savouring its warmth, watching the rising tongues of flame. 7. He inspired universal confidence and had an iron nerve. 8. A very small boy in a green jersey with light red hair cut square across his forehead was peering at Steven between the electric fire and the side of the fireplace. 9. While the others were settling down, Lucy saw Pearson take another bite from his sandwich. 10. As I walked nonchalantly past Hugo's house on the other side they were already carrying out the Renoirs.

 

PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENT 5

Explain the basis for the following jokes. Trace the logical associations between the different meanings of the same word.

1. Father was explaining to his little son the fundamentals of astronomy.

"That's a comet."

"A what?"

"A comet. You know what a comet is?"

"No."

"Don't you know what they call a star with a tail?"

"Sure — Mickey Mouse."

2."Pa, what branches did you take when you went to school?"

"I never went to high school, son, but when I attended the little log school-house they used mostly hickory and beech and willow."

3.What has eyes yet never sees? (Potato)

4. H e (in telephone booth): I want a box for two.

Voice (at the other end): Sorry, but we don't have boxes for two.

H e: But aren't you the box office of the theatre?

Voice: No, we are the undertakers.

 

PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENT 6

In the examples given below identify the cases of widening and narrowing of meaning.

1. While the others waited the elderly executive filled his pipe and lit it. 2. Finn was watching the birds. 3. The two girls took hold of one another, one acting gentleman, the other lady; three or four more pairs of girls immediately joined them and began a waltz. 4. He was informed that the president had not arrived at the bank, but was on his way. 5. Smokey had followed a dictum all his life: If you want a woman to stick beside you, pick an ugly one. Ugly ones stay to slice the meat and stir the gravy.

 

PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENT 7

Have the italicized words evaluative connotations in their meanings? Motivate your answer and comment on the history of the words.

1. The directors now assembling were admirals and field marshals of commerce. 2. For a businessman to be invited to serve on a top-flight bank board is roughly equivalent to being knighted by the British Queen. 3.1 had a nice newsy gossip with Mrs. Needham before you turned up last night. 4. The little half-starved guy looked more a victim than a villain. 5. Meanwhile I nodded my head vigorously and directed a happy smile in the direction of the two ladies. 6. shook hands with Tom; it seemed silly not to, for I felt suddenly as though I were talking to a child.

 

PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENT 8

Read the following. Find examples of "degeneration" and "elevation" of meaning. Comment on the history of the words.

1. King Arthur invented Conferences because he was secretly a Weak King and liked to know what his memorable thousand and one knights wanted to do next. As they were all jealous knights he had to have the memorable Round Table made to have the Conferences at, so that it was impossible to say which was top knight.

(From 1066 and All That by C. W. Seller, R. J. Yeatman)

2. A1f: Where are you going, Ted?

Ted: Fishing at the old mill.

A 1 f: But what about school?

Ted: Don't be silly. There aren't any fish therel

 

PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENT 9

Try your hand at the following scientific research. Write a short essay on the development of the meanings of three of the following words. Try to explain each shift of meaning. Use "The Shorter Oxford Dictionary" or "The Merriam-Webster Book of Word Histories".

Fee, cattle, school, pupil, nice, pen, gossip, coquette, biscuit, apron, merrv. s'lly, doom, duke, pretty, yankee.