The main sources and functioning of neologisms in english and kazakh languages

New words are mainly coined according to the productive models for word-building in the given language. But the new words also can be built with the help of affixes and by other means which have gone out of use or which are in the process of dying out [10; p:93].

It often happens, however, that the sensitive reader finds a new application of an already existing word almost revolting. Purists of all shades rise up in protest against what they call the highly objectionable and illegitimate usage of the word. But being once successfully used, it may be repeated by other writers and so may remain in the language and, moreover, may influence the further history of the semantic development of the word.

Among new coinages there must be mentioned a considerable layer of words appearing in the publicistic style, mainly in newspaper articles and magazines and also in the newspaper style – mostly in newspaper headlines.

The main difficulty in the translation of neologism is in understanding the meaning of the new word. And if a translator already knows the meaning of the neologism it is easy enough for him to translate it, by means of different methods, which we are going to discuss a bit later.

Proceeding from the definition of the term “neologism” we can suppose that the translator, when he comes across the neologism for the first time, naturally has not a faintest idea of the notion, carried by it. That’s why he has to find out the meaning of the neologism, mostly from the context.

It should be mentioned that translators usually deal with such three types of contexts:

1. micro context (local context) – a context of a particular utterance including its structure and semantics;
2. communicative context – a context of a particular discourse;
3. macro context (global context) – the subject field world and the world in general [2; p: 70].

The last type of the context is the most important for translators as it usually carries some hints which help to understanding the meaning of neologisms more profoundly.

In it turn micro context can be classified into:

• lexical context (here of primary importance are lexical groups combined with polysemantic words under consideration);
• grammatical context (it is the grammatical (mainly syntactic) structure of the context that serves to determine various individual meanings of a polysemantic word) [3; p: 49].

As we see, by taking into account the grammatical context, translator can define to what part of speech the neologism belongs to, and lexical context will be very useful for understanding the meaning of the neologism.

As a rule new words appear on the basis of already existing words and morphemes. The analysis of these words and morphemes can help the translator to understand the meaning of neologism. Taking into account the method of appearance neologisms are subdivided into: 1) phonological, 2) borrowing, 3) semantic, 4) syntactic, coined by combination of signs already existing in a language (word building, combination of words). It will be expedient to divide the last type of neologisms into morphological (word building) and phraseological (combination of words).

Phonological neologisms are formed from separate sounds and are unique by their configuration [5; p: 138]. Such words are sometimes called “artificial” or “invented”. The new configurations of sounds are from time to time connected with the morphemes of Greek or Latin origin, example: adhocracy (a flexible organizational system designed to be responsive to the needs of the moment), acryl, perlon (synthetic materials). Words coined from exclamations also belong to the group of phonological neologisms such as: to zap (to make more powerful, exciting; to revitalize) formed from a similar word “zap” which was used in comics for the transmission of the sound of space weapon (in a graphic form ). It is possible here to deliver the words formed by the change of writing for passing their pronunciation, for example: wannabe (a person who wants to be someone else) coined from “want to be”, wheneye (a person who exasperates listeners by continually recounting tales of his experiences and exploits) arose up due to an introductory phrase “when I…” Such type of neologisms can be delivered to “strong neologisms”, in fact they have the high degree of connotation of newness, that increase by an unusual thing and freshness of their form.

It is possible to concern borrowings which are characterized by untypical for the English language by the distribution, by the morphological division and absence of motivation to strong neologisms. And although on this stage borrowings are on periphery of lexical system, they are still an integral part of innovations. For the last decade growth of borrowings from Japanese and Spanish has taking place. The main centers of attraction for new borrowings are: 1) art and culture: cinemateque (from French), karaoke (from Japanese); 2) social and political life: Ossi, Wessi (from German) – denotation of citizen of the East and West Germany; fatwa (from Arabic) – a legal decision or ruling given by Islamic religious leader; karoshi (from Japanese) – death caused by overwork or job-related exhaustion; 3) everyday life: taqueria (from Spanish) – a restaurant specializing in Mexican food, particularly tacos; otaku (from Japanese) – people who are obsessed with the trivia of a particular hobby; geek (from Danish) – unfashionable, boring or socially inept person; basuco (from Colombian) – a cheap impure form of cocaine; bimbo (from Italian) - an attractive but unintelligent young woman; 4) scientific and technical borrowings: biogeocenose (from Russian) – ecological system. Barbarisms differ by the greatest degree of newness which are not assimilated units of a new vocabulary, for example: jihad (from Arabic) – a struggle.

Substantial diminishment of amount of the traced words is noticeable: traffic calming (from German Verkehrsberuhihung) - the deliberate slowing of traffic, esp. along residential streets, by construction of road humps or other obstacles to progress.

The result of borrowings is not only the addition to lexical composition of the language, the stylish colouring of lexical units changes in the process of borrowing and their inner structure homonymic relations are formed, that promotes, the variation of lexical units and partly predetermines it [5; p: 143].

        Morphological neologisms appear after standards which exist in the linguistic system from morphemes present in a language. The question is in word building and such regular word building processes as affixation, conversion, word composition, shortening, etc. The main sign that distinguished morphological neologisms from phonological and from borrowings is the presence of analogy and typology in the basis of their creation.

          The first attempt of creation taxonomy of word building facilities was made by Platon. And although nowadays there appeared several new types of word building, such as the use of acronyms or blending, it is possible to speak about existence of traditional taxonomy of word building. The role of word building consists not only in making up new words but in producing the words already existing in a language.

          It is known that one of the most widespread methods of forming derivative words is affixation. There are other facilities of word building such as conversion, composition, blending, shortening and the use of acronyms.

For the last decades in coinage of new words there were used 103 suffixes: - ability, - able, -ac, - asy, - (i)al, - ally, - (i)an, - age, -ance, - ant, - ar, - arium, - ary, - ase, - ate, - atic, - ation, - ative, - cade, - dom, - ectomy, - ed, - ee, - eer, - eme, - emia, - er/or, ers, - ery, - ese, - est, - esque, - et, - eteria, - ette, - fest, - hood, - ia, -iasis, - ic, - ica, - ical, - ician, - icity, - ics, - idase, - ide, - ie, - ification, - ify, - igenic, - in, - ine (adj.), - ine (nominal), - ing, - ino, - ion, - ional, - ish, - ism, - ist, - ite (person), - ite (mineral), - ity, - ium, - ive, - ization, - ize, - ized, - less, - let (te), - ly, - metry, - mycin, - ness, - nik, -o, - oid, - ol, - ola, ologist, ology, - oma, - on, - onium, - orium, - ory, -ose, -osis, - ous, - plex, -ry, -s(area of study), - s (plural of disease), - scape, - ship, - ster, - sville, - tron, - tuplet, - ure, - y(adj.), - y (nominal) [4; p: 152].

Besides, in formation of new units actively participate semi-suffixes (or combing forms): - athon, - friendly, - gate, - gram, - hydro, - intensive, - info, -man, -ship, - oriented, a/oholic, - pedia/paedia, - speak, - tool, - watcher, - wide.

Among prefixes which take part in the coinage of neologisms, prefixes and semi-prefixes of the Latin origin prevail. It is worth mentioning the most productive of them: ant-, co-, de-, ne-, non-, post-, pre-, sub-, in- [4; p: 157].

The characteristic feature of modern suffixes is their severe pragmatic attaching after the certain sphere of their usage that is their terminology. Besides the considerable part of innovations belong to the scientific and technical sphere.

The most active on this stage of development of the language derivation is realized in making up new stylistically neutral words which represents the phenomena of public life and acquires wide distribution among linguists.

For example, the suffix -er, semantics of which foresees the agent of action, v+er→N: stalker (a person who follows or pesters somebody, with whom he/she has become obsessed), comper (a person who enters for competitions regularly in order to win as many prizes as possible), slacker (a person regarded as being one of a large group of people, esp. of young adults who are perceived to lack a sense of direction in life). The model of creation neologism by addition to the noun the suffix -ing is interesting: N+ -ing→N, for example: hydrospeeding (a sport in which participants launch themselves down rapids holding on to a float); carjacking (the violent abduction or “hijacking” of a car or its driver) [3; p: 189].

In policy it is widespread derivation of neologisms with the help of suffix -ism or semi-suffix -nomics to the proper names, for example: Brairism (the political and economic policies of the British Labour politician Tony Blair), Majorism, Clintonomics (the economic policies of President Clinton), Nixonomics. Especially important in the aspect of functional neology is efemerism (words of wide use in a certain period of public development, as a rule, connected with activity of political figures which after words pass to the general fund according to the definite events): Thatcherism, Raiganomics. It follows that this model activates as a result of certain changes in the life of the society.

          The period of spreading of feministic movement also imposed the imprint on the linguistic system, expressed in the suffixes of the neutral tender colouring, for example: -eer – marketeer (a specialist in marketing), -tron, – waitron (a waiter or waitress). The suffix -ed is used in formation of adjectives from verbs, for example, after the model V+ed→Adj. there appeared such neologisms as: oxygenated (containing oxygenate additives which reduce harmful emission such as carbon dioxide), caffeinated (containing caffeine, having had caffeine added), challenged  (lacking a physical or mental attribute, not having a specified skill).

Word building with prefixes is less spread, but nevertheless lexical units demonstrate the semantic loading of prefixes and semi-prefixes.

         In fact not only the root of word but also its affixes show their semantic signs, for example: reskill (to retrain in the skills required by a modern business), outsource (to obtain by contract from a source outside an organization or area; to contract out).

Some affixes are more used in everyday intercourse because they have marking “slang”. One of the most active suffixes of slang is a suffix -y/-ie, which developed a new humiliatingly-ironical meaning, forming neologisms after the model N+-y/-ie→N. Words, coined with the help of this suffix, limited in the use and are kept indoors of unofficial communication, mainly among young  people. For example: fundie (a fundamentalist, esp. a religious one), foodie (a person whose hobby or main interest is food, a gourmet). Although, at the same time in the language there continues to exist the suffix -y in its diminished-tender meaning: techie (an expert in or enthusiast for technology, esp. computing, a technician), monty (everything that is necessary or appropriate, “the works”). Besides the sufficient word building activity is shown by the suffix -y which forms new adjectives, for example: touchy-feely (given to a tactile expression of one’s feelings, motivated by emotion rather than intellect) [9; p: 186].

The analysis of structure feature of word building bases leads that among them abbreviations, acronyms, compound words and even phrases which become a new tendency in derivation of affixes are distinguished. One of the productive models with bases of a similar type is the Acronym model+-ie→N. The innovations after such algorithm have status of words which represent the division of society in the USA and Great Britain into different groups and layers, for example: yuppie (young urban professional) and rumpie (rural upwardly mobile professional). By analogy with these neologisms, other words appear: muppie (middle-aged urban professional person), yeepie (youthful energetic elderly people), woopie (well-off older person).

To neologisms of this type it is possible to concern such words as: dinkie (double income, no kids) – childless family, nilkie (no income, lots of kids) – family with many children of an unemployed person. But the lexical units, formed after this model have ironical connotation strengthened due to the suffix -ie, and their usage is limited by the representatives of the middle class.

On the whole for the word building models of neologisms with the help of affixes the characteristic tendency is the multi-significance. Especially ramified semantic structure is distinguished by the models of formation nouns with the help of affixes that it is conditioned by their cognition feature to mark objects, phenomena, processes of the real reality in the whole variety of their connections and relations, each of which can find oneself in man’s eyeshot and become the object of process of cognition. The system of word building with the help of affixes of the English language is not only one of the active methods of addition to dictionary composition but also is marked by high potential to self-fulfilling, what testifies about the appearance of new word building models; affixes and also new components in their semantic structure, and pragmatic differentiation of affixes after different spheres of the use also differs.

The appearance of derivatives is caused by not only nominative necessity of a new denotation but also stylistic factors: the use of derivatives is instrumental in the syntactic compactness of the text, its expressiveness.

The prime example of such words is the compound words where semantic and syntactic compression is observed the same time – the expansion of syntactic functions of initial structure. Compound words are coined in two ways: composition which means drafting of bases and confluence (blending), the process of formation of the unit itself in which one truncated element and complete form of the other element, is connected [3; p: 195].

An underproductive type of making up compound words is also possible. That is the contamination which means imposition of final element of the first word to the omonymical beginning of the second one, as for example, in the word of “twigloo” (“twig”+”igloo”). The formation of telescope nominations and word-bars is caused by “the principle of the least efforts” and is one of the law economy displays of language efforts.

The basic model of composition is N+N N besides the new word can be written in one and with a hyphen. For example, basehead (a person who habitually takes cocaine in the form of freebase or crack), towelhead (a person who wears a headcloth or turban), toyboy (an attractive young man who is kept as a lover by an older person), lifestyle (the total sum of the likes and dislikes of a particular customer). The productive model is also A+N A: for example, hard-ass (difficult, tough, uncompromising).

Some researchers indicate to existence of separate type of compound words, namely syntactic, the basis of which serve combinations of words; sentences or parts of sentence. The semantic capacity of derivation units is practically unlimited, as they are able to include variable information a linguist intends to pass. For example, hole-in-the-wall (machine which dispenses cash and gives information about a person’s bank accounts).

The model like this is very interesting Prep.+N Adj.: for example, “for-profit” – intended to make a profit, profit-making. A “bulky” of these new words promotes their shortening, as a result acronyms appear, for example: do-it-yourself D.I.Y.; ready-to-wear r-t-w.

Such word building method as blending is rather widespread in the modern English, for example: Japanimation (animated cartoons produced in Japan). Thus both models with truncating of the component and models with truncating of both elements are active. In the first case first part of the compound word can be unchangeable (for example, netizen - network user, from "net" + "(cit)izen", mokney - inauthentic and affected imitation of cockney, from "mock" + "(cock)ney"), or its final element (for example, feminazi - a radical feminist, from "femi(nist)" + "nazi", emergicenter - a clinic offering emergency outpatient treatment, from "emerg(ency)” + "center"). Making up of the new telescope words has been activating during the last decades, where both elements are the subject to truncating, namely the final truncating of the first component and initial truncating of the following: edutainment (entertainment with an educational aspect; from "edu(cation)" + "(enter)tainment"), vegelate (chocolate which contains a certain proportion of vegetable fat other than cocoa butter, from "vege(table)" + "choco(late)") [3; p: 216].

Telescope nominations, as well as compound words represent the tendency to universalization and rationalization of the language; demonstrate different degrees of motivation and division. Thus the degree of their division and motivation is lower, that is explained by the presence of the hidden cut off elements.

         Conversion as the method of coinage of new words by derivation has considerably reduced its activity for the last years. Active models are mutual transitions of nouns and verbs, V→N and N→V: drive-by (a shooting carried out from a moving vehicle), add-in (something which is added to a computer or other system to improve in capabilities or performance), to mouse (to carry out by using a mouse), to reskill (to retrain workers in the skills required by a modern business). A new model appears: shortening of the phrase and substantivation of the adjective A→N, for example: plastic (credit cards, debit cards, and other plastic cards which can be used in place of money to pay for goods and services).

Shortening as a result of the action of the law of language economy are also widely used among the word building methods of coinage neologisms [5; p: 158]. Thus a word has a tendency to shortening both initial and final elements of the structure. For example, burb - a suburb, a suburban area; rad - really good or exciting; cool, hip, awesome (from "radical"). Some innovations assimilate in the language, getting new signs: diss (an insult or put-down, from "disrespect"), or skell (a homeless person, a derelict, from "skeleton"). The others remain changeable shortened variants of existing equivalents in the language: aero (aerodynamic in design or appearance), impro (a form of live entertainment based on improvisation and interaction with the audience). It worth mentioning that the shortened words are most often used in the colloquial speech in the case when the speakers exactly know, what the question is about, and there is no need to use the initial variant of the certain word.

The use of acronyms is also rather active method of word building. Words-acronyms are often spread among linguists and become current, at first as fashionable words (buzz-words), later as comfortable colloquial forms. For example, FOB (a supporter of President William Jefferson Clinton; from "Friend Of Bill"), FAQ (a document, usually in electronic form online, containing a list of questions most often asked about a particular subject, usually with answers to them; from "Frequently Asked Questions") [14; p: 271]. Acronyms from current phrases, also exist and function in the language, as for example: BTW (by the way) or TINA (there is no alternative).

As to semantic neologisms, the unique problem at their studying is the establishment of criteria after which it is possible to distinguish a separate independent word or a new meaning of already existing word, which are the results of semantic changes. To sum up, the neologism is a new coined word or phrase, or a new meaning for an existing word, or a word borrowed from another language. The intense development of science and industry has called forth the invention and introduction of an immense number of new words and changed the meaning of the old ones. The amount of neologisms on different topical groups depends on the development intensity of the corresponding kinds of people’s activity and on the degree of changes in the way of life of the society. It is worth mentioning that for the last time it gets more complicated to separate exactly terminological and current vocabulary, as the wide usage of everyday technique is followed by the penetration of the great amount of the technical words in the everyday vocabulary. Popular-science TV-programs and articles of media also help the appearance of diffusion of words into the everyday colloquial speech. In general, according to the laws of language development there exist mechanisms which regulate the addition and updating of the vocabulary, thanks to the semantic innovations, supporting them in corresponding activity. Some of the new meanings of the old words become an integral part of the language; the others can find the resistance in the language usage.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

                                                  Conclusion

        In our present diploma work we analyzed the neologisms of English, Kazakh languages. We took these words to determine the major trends in the growing vocabulary; the words were analyzed according to:

-  the source and time of appearance,

-  to the word building type,

-  to the sphere of usage,

-  to the ability to create new words,