The main sources and functioning of neologisms in english and kazakh languages

The Italian poet Alfieri went even further: he wrote an epigram on the sonorous quality of the Italian word capitano, which was deformed and `nasalised' in French capitaine, and reduced to a mere captain in harsh English throats.

         Stephen Ullmann in his book also wrote about the loosing of emotive meaning of some words, and as an example, he took neologisms. He said that the more often we repeat an expressive term or phrase, the less effective it will be. This is particularly noticeable in the case of figurative language. When, a few years ago, the term bulge began to be used to denote an increase in the birth rate. It had the effect of an illuminating metaphor; now we are accustomed to it that we no longer visualize the image.

Hyperbolic terms are even more affected by the law of diminishing returns. We all know how quickly they go out of fashion. In our own time, modern forms of publicity and propaganda consume such words at an unprecedented rate and are constantly on the look-out for fresh alternatives: even such technical terms as supersonic have been drawn into their orbit.

Finally, words may lose their evocative power as they pass from a restricted milien into common usage. When the English term sport was introduced into French in 1828, the writer who first used it was at pains to explain that the word had no equivalent in his own language. For several decades, sport remained an Anglicism of limited currency in French; as late as 1855, the purist Viennet protested against it in a poem about English words, which he read to the Institut:

Faut-il, pour cimenter un merveilleux accord,

Changer I'arene en turf, et le plaisir en sport?

Since then, the word has become part of everyday French has lost all evocative force. The same has happened to many successful neologisms. The adjective international for instance, was formed in 1780 by Jeremy Benthan who apologized for his temerity in coining a new term: “The word international, it must be acknowledged, is a new one, though, it is hoped, sufficiently analogous and intelligible”. Subsequently the word became an indispensable element of our political vocabulary and lost any air of neologism it may have had in Bentham's day.

Rather more subtle are the movements of words up and social scale. One is quite surprised to learn that some ordinary English words such as joke or banter began their career as slang terms, and that many others - cajole, clever, fun, job, width, etc. - were stigmatized as `low' by Dr.Johnson.

         Similarly, in the French la blaquer `to joke, to banter' is today a harmless colloquialism; yet little more than a century ago it must have had powerful social overtones [29].

   

2.4 Features semanticization of Neologisms in Modern Media

 

In the current climate of globalization, all peaceful human inflamed It brought experiencing tremendous influence of modern mediation of information. It is therefore no coincidence in the society of the mass mediation has an important role. Mass of Communication - the social interaction of some kind. Generally valid-dependence of the communicative sphere due to the fact that at the center of her attention is human society, acting as a limited social dimensional space with specific internal processes and cultural characteristics. Media exhibit  their impact in all areas of modern-variable life.

The process of studying the modern Russian language media in the material represents a special interest. As far back as 1964 NY Shvedov said that "living language processes provides a rich newspaper and interesting material." Consequently, the newspaper - the only organ that is able to capture-linguistic processes. Language press devoted to the works of such scholars governmental known as VG Kostoma-ditch, GY Solganik, BV Krivenko, DE Rosenthal and others. As pointed out by JN Guard: "The language of the media today found state the rule of the position of all  functional varieties .... This language is no longer possible to describe the same qualities as what has restraints functional scope of style, this language appears as a self-sustaining organism, whose existence-cerned - as every body - due to-mined by a set of basic needs of and resources to ensure its preservation, reproduction and development ". It should be noted language of modern media, simultaneously combining opposite qualities such as "dynamic conservatism and michnost, reference and dependence on free-speech priorities of his time, including various kinds of fashion pristasty." At the present time in journalism, occurs dyad processes qualitatively alter its appearance. Become more free-boundary boundary between different genres, and I-are allowed to view within each genre rules of conduct for pub-cyst .. Change as social and moral values ​​.. At the forefront the impact of tech-hundred, his focus. In the center of research is increasingly author-parameter intent, the adequacy of using the money-Mykh goal.

Language of communication mediation is the "common language" of the nation's most influential type of text, circulation in society. The importance of this area of ​​language use the most obvious, visible from a semantic point of view, since it is her standard is supported, NOSTA socially important names in the public. Among the most significant recognition of magnitude mass communication can be called a-vat lack of feedback from the usual sense of the word. 
Functioning of the media in the modern society in most studies of different aspects. Linguistic same problems associated with this field of application and use of language, only-to have recently become the object of ad hoc studies, often in co-lingvistic stylistic and functional proper linguistic.  

The new word is included in the newspaper, having a maximum combined bridge-free, but its lexical meaning is often hidden and additional information is needed for its restoration-creation. Semanticization words in the text helps to reveal the semantics of language that promotes knowledge and cognitive development of individuals, in-beam information from newspapers. Overall, it is known that the transfer of any information it requires understanding communications, which is directly related to its understanding. Of great importance in this connection is the problem of information retrieval and in acts of communication. When creating an n-material journalists come from the "present - the old" information, which a swarm of readers own and complement but-hand information. In recent years, COG, but operates in the Russian language a lot of new words newspaper text may not be able to realize their value their own means-mi, and this trial-Lehmann is solved by entering into the fabric of public awareness additional information.

Observations on the vocabulary of the media can note the appearance of a series of words, but with the new language in a gas-thou, because of how the individual values ​​of  phenomena of life of the country, and social processes occurring in the governing it, and beyond. Semanticization in the newspaper are both absolutely neologisms are words, appearance in the language for the first time as a result of new concepts and phenomena of reality, which requires its no-discrimination, and relative, that is, words that already exist in various areas popular language, but the unknown literary language. Semanticization is also evident in SRI familiarize with the new values ​​of known words, with this important and denotative meanings and connotations. These groups "of new" words and meanings are not always available in fixed-FIR lexicographic publications. The practice is widespread, a strange phenomenon as spontaneous lexicography, semanticization words in the context of the Society, to which the authors are often used in cases where they believe it is necessary. These facts can be used by specialists, especially when the interpretation of the author is both specialists in the field that knowledge. Regular use of the newspaper nominations untapped foreign words, terminology, spoken language, journalism leads to the problem of their comrade semanticization due to the fact that disclosure of the semantic representation on the only means for rapid adaptation of these groups in the Russian language. Analysis of material la modern media indicates that the linguistic approximation of near terminology and category-discrimination but also reflecting cultural identity. We have identified the following thematic groups:

1. Socio-political lexical It is well known that the life of any State has a huge impact to development of language functioning in this State. There is a reverse process, which consists in the fact that language reflects and reinforces in his system all the concepts and phenomena and processes characteristic of existing social order and public-structures. A large part of cross units belonging to APL, have on various official documents, presidential decrees, the law acts and a variety of agreed-of. In this area, the lexical units semanticized not because of its novelty or little-known (although not ruled out that option), and for a common understanding of citizens of the provisions included in the force of law. Here is a definition of propagation of the character. Here are examples-ry.January 11, 2006 in the residence "Ak Orda" was held the inauguration ceremony Pre-dent of the RK - a solemn act of accession, a head of state (Егемен Қазақстан, 1/26/06).Diffariatsiya - this is the dissemination of information (real or imaginary-negative), defaming the honor and dignity of the person or business reputation entity (Kazakhstanskaya Pravda, 7/5/07).

2. Economic terms. A large group of vocabulary, which serves middle-property nomination economic thermal electrons, which contribute to the rethinking of the development of new gross-values ​​often still uncommitted in the explanatory words ryah, for example: "The city of Dzhezkazgan vitriol posted, but trade relations with Poland are carried out by clearing, then there is a certain amount, for which we have a duty. All the vitriol went to pay off the debt (Kazakhstan Pravda, 3/6/08).

3. Medical vocabulary. At the present time due to the increasing interest in medicine, with the increasing flow of Patriotic-governmental and import of medicinal preparations of and description of diseases and their treatment methods include active medical lectures vagina that lexicographers do not have time to include not only the dictionaries, but in health. For example: "It is known that prolonged cold can lead to very unpleasant consequences - NIJ-inflammation of paranasal sinuses, known as 'sinusitis' (Kazakhstan rights, yes, 07/11/08)" The American experts on therapy (as a fashion direction tion of medicine dealing with anti-aging) derived a simple Eqn "elixir of youth ..." (Kostanaiskie News, 8/24/08). 
         4. Special word-orientednye to a specific audience. Newspapers of the regional scale, calculated greater than the rural audience, put on their pages articles written by specialists in the industry a second agricultural economy. For example: "The old tubers cyclamen (alpine violets) terminates vayut-period of the rest" (Kostanai News, 03/04/07).

5. Nominations to reflect national functional-cultural identity. These lexical-cal units may have a different influence of the lexical system in the modern Russian language, which directly depends on the degree of contact languages. 
The absence of close contact between the languages ​​leads to the fact that spe-crystallographic for the Russian language lexical unit does not enrich their vocabulary host language, but only has a definite information, and requires a semantics-tizatsii with each new appearance.

For example: "berimbau - a Brazilian of national instrument. This bow tension nuty per ordinary pumpkin as a familiar rattle and drum. " (Kazakhstan stanskaya truth, 2/11/07). "So here is a German fund of the public peace, and to fridensgeprehen - lectures and talks on re-mi" (Kazakhstan Pravda, 2/10/07). 
In another way, this is the case with near-com contact languages, in proportion to the situation Inonu-Russian - bilingualism, when specific information enriches the vocabulary of the Russian language. This is due to the fact shown that the value of the token is already reflected in the submission and semantization is required only when the first stage of the occurrences of the lexical system in another language. Semanticization Kazakh words and expressions are translated-nym method comprising: 1) the translation of the word with a corresponding equivalent of the native language, which does not give tex-that no national colors, only points to the nomination of the phenomenon, the concepts of the subject. For example: "Another issue concerns the word" hymn "which now sounds like әнұран, that is something like a song - a hymn. We propose to consider, watching the new version - әнұран, which means that the national anthem (Kazakhstanstanskaya true, 4/4/07), and 2) translation - interpretation includes both word for word translation, and the additional of interpretation. The need for additional interpretation appears in the prefecture when the normal transfer can not be reached-nut full semantic equivalence meanings of language - the source and the language - the translation. For example: "Then the sound-cheat ceremonial song about a matchmaker and des sounds of latter-day relatives to eat, furnish kuyruk - bauyr (pieces of liver and tail)" (Kazakhstanskaya true 04/08/05). 
          6. Word of the reduced staining in-appropriate conversational style, and slang words and vernacular character for example: "They talk was only about pasterns - that is money, who has sold well and for how much." (Kostanai but-bility,02/06/06). 
         In addition to these groups of words, semantics tizatsii undergoes a large reservoir of abbreviations. For example: "There is a crease in the lake-reeds, as evidenced by the excess rate of BOD (bio-logical oxygen demand) to 2 MPC (maximum permissible concentration of) "(Kazakhstan Pravda, 9/11/07). Study vocabulary to date semanticization lexicology of modern Russian language material on the media is of great importance as it allows to be shown clearly the changes taking place in public life.

   

2.5  Differentiation with respect to time axis of neologisms

                                             (based on word-building)

 

The vocabulary of any language does not remain the same by changes constantly.

In the ever-changing field of political life and affairs new words are constantly coined. In this connection it is interesting to pay attention to the process of coining political euphemisms. Unemployment is substituted by the down-toned expressions: unused or underused manpower or redundancy. The problem of starvation is the problem of adequate nourishment, and the poor are only the underprivileged.

A few examples of neologisms showing the patterns according to which they are formed may be of interest. Automation ‘automatic control of production’ is irregularly formed from the stem automatic – with the help of the very production suffix –tion. The corresponding verb to automated is a back-formation, e.g. to re-equip in the most modern and automated fashion. Re- is one of the most production prefixes; the others are anti-, de-, un-, the semi-affixes self- and mini- and many more. Antiflash (serving to protect the eyes) or the jocular anti-everything: She (the nurse) was anti-everything, except such of the patients who were good for a gossip (M.Dickens). Deglamorise (to make less attractive), rejuvenate (to make young again), rehouse (to move a family, a community etc. to a new house).

The prefix un- increases its combining power, enjoys a new wave of fashion and is now attached even to noun stem. A literary critic refers to the broken-down “Entertainer” (in John Osborne’s play) as a ‘contemporary unhero, the desperately unfunny Archie Rice’. ‘Unfunny’ here means not amusing in spite of the desire to amuse. A freer use of semi- affixes can be illustrated by mini-budget, mini-car, mini-skirt, midi-coat, midi-frock, self-service of restaurant, shop, etc. in which customers help themselves to food or goods and many more neologisms with self-.

Compounding by mere juxtaposition of free forms has been a frequent pattern since the Old English period, e.g. ‘brainstrust’ (a group of experts), ‘quiz-master’ (chairman in competitions designed to test the knowledge of the participants). In the neologism ‘back-room boys’ (men engaged in secret research) the structural cohesion of the compound is enhanced by the attribute function. ‘Redbrick’ (universities), ‘paperback’ (books).

A peculiarly English and steadily developing type is presented by nouns formed by a combined process of conversion and composition from verbs with postpositives, such as a hold up (armed robbery) from hold up (rob), fall out (airborne particles of radioactive matter), teach in (a student conference or a series of seminars on some burning issue of the day). This pattern is very frequent: read-in, sign-in, stay-in, and talk-in.

Many technical and scientific inventions and notions are named by using the so-called combining forms, e.g. aqualung (from Latin combining from aqua and lung) – a portable diving apparatus. The change of meaning, or rather the introduction of a new, additional of a new, additional meaning, may be illustrated by the word network (a number of broadcasting station, connected for a simultaneous broadcast of the same programme). Another example is a word of American literary slang – the square. This neologism is used as a derogatory epithet for a person who plays safe, who sticks to his illusions, and thinks that only his own life embodies all decent moral values.

Conversion is quite frequent, e.g. to orbit the moon, to garage a cra, to service a car.

Very often two or more types of word-building combine in creating a neologism. Thus composition, substantiation and semantic change together are present in the personal name come back meaning a person who returns after a long absence.

          As a general rule neologisms are at first clearly motivated. An exception is shown by those based on borrowings or learned coinages which, though motivated at an early stage, very soon being to function as indivisible signs. A good example is the much used term cybernetics (study of system of control and communication in living being and man-made devices), coined by Norbert Weiner from the Greek word kubernetes (steersman) + suffix –ics.

There are, however, cases when etymology is obscure, as in the noun boffin (a scientist engaged in research work) or in gimmick (a tricky device) – an American slang word that is now often used in British English. Etymology offered for the latter is only guesswork.

In the course of time the new word is accepted for some reason or the other and vanishes from the language. The fate of neologisms is hardly predictable, some of them are short-lived, others, on the contrary, become durable if they are liked and accepted. Once accepted, they may serve as a basis for further word-formation. Thus gimmick, gimmicky, gimmickry. Zip(an initiative word denoting a certain type of fastener) is hardly felt as new, but its derivatives, the verb to zip formed by conversion (to zip from one place to another) and the corresponding noun zipper appear to be neologisms.

The student of mass phenomena is naturally interested in appraising the number of units he has to deal with. It has proved no easy task. The difficulties confronting one in undertaking a word count are manifold. It is difficult to estimate the number of words in a language because of the so-called nonce-words that is words coined for one occasion. For example: I am sure I can help you publicity-wise with Beethoven’s birthday. After all this is really big thing. We must do whatever is best Beethovenwise. Or: Yes, I said, admiring the fishes and already getting a little whiskified (CARY). The surgeon rubbed his hands and ha-ha’d. (M.Dickens).

Adous Huxley created very effective compound derivatives art-for-arter and trans-beasted (turned into beasts); …there was someone who could never believe that I was not an art-for-arter; as though our lives depended on getting there before the other trans-beasted passengers. And J.priestley Goes farther and derives a personal noun with the suffix –er out of a whole sentence: All they want to be is to be acquaintances, mere How-d’you-doers. Are we justified to count those as units of the vocabulary? It’s a very difficult question for linguists.

 

                        2.6 Neologisms and their ways of creation

 

The living language is constantly changing and growing, and so do the vocabulary, as a most flexible and dynamic element of the language.  Some of the words drop out of the vocabulary of a language with the development of culture, science, technology or with significant changes in the social life of people. Thousands of words and phrases enter the English language each year to name an invention, a development, a process, a trend.

There is a term in linguistics which by its nature is ambiguous and that is the term neologism. In dictionaries it is generally defined as “a new word or a new meaning for an established word”. Everything in this definition is vague. And it is suggestive that the latest editions of certain dictionaries avoid the use of the stylistic notation “neologism” apparently because of its ambiguous character. If a word is fixed in a dictionary and provided that the dictionary is reliable, it ceases to be a neologism. If a new meaning is recognized as an element in the semantic structure of a lexical unit, it ceases to be new. However, if we wish to divide the word-stock of a language into chronological periods, we can conventionally mark off a period which might be called new [10; p: 92].

  Every period in the development of a language produces an enormous number of new words or new meanings of established words. Most of them do not live long. They are not meant to live long. They are, as it were, coined for use at the moment of speech, and therefore possess a peculiar property – that of temporariness. The given word or meaning holds only in the given context and is meant only to “serve the occasion”.

However, such is the power of the written language that a word or a meaning used only to serve the occasion, when once fixed in writing, may become a part and parcel of the general vocabulary irrespective of the quality of the word. That’s why the introduction of new words is pregnant with unforeseen consequences: their new coinages may replace old words and become established in the language as synonyms and later as substitutes for the old words.

The coining of new words generally arises first of all with the need to designate new concepts resulting from the development of science and also with the need to express nuances of meaning called forth by a deeper understanding of the nature of the phenomenon in question. It may also be the result of a research for a more economical, brief and compact form of utterance which proves to be a more expressive means of communicating the idea.

The first type of newly coined words i.e. those which designate newborn concepts, may be named terminological coinages. The second type – words coined because their creators seek expressive utterance may be named stylistic coinages.