The main sources and functioning of neologisms in english and kazakh languages

Some neologisms, especially those dealing with sensitive subjects, are often objected to on the grounds that they obscure the issue being discussed, and that such a word's novelty often leads a discussion away from the root issue and onto a sidetrack about the meaning of the neologism itself.

Proponents of a neologism see it as being useful, and also helping the language to grow and change; often they perceive these words as being a fun and creative way to play with a language. Also, the semantic precision of most neologisms, along with what is usually a straightforward syntax, often makes them easier to grasp by people who are not native speakers of the language [21].

The outcome of these debates, when they occur, has a great deal of influence on whether a neologism eventually becomes an accepted part of the language. Linguists may sometimes delay acceptance, for instance by refusing to include the neologism in dictionaries; this can sometimes cause a neologism to die out over time. Nevertheless if the public continues to use the term, it always eventually sheds its status as a neologism and enters the language even over the objections of language experts.

The formation of the socio - political neologisms in the Kazakh language. Each epoch enriches the language of the new words. In the periods of the greatest activity of the socio - political and cultural life of the nation inflow of new words especially increased. The turbulent events of the last decade - the collapse of the totalitarian state, refusal from a command - administrative system, the collapse of the prevailing for 70 years socio - economic and spiritual foundations of the social life - made fundamental changes in all spheres of human activity. 
In our country, as well as in Russia, have very favorable conditions for the enrichment of the vocabulary. In our opinion, the appearance of neologisms in any language are due to substantial change in public life, for the language, as an important part of the culture, responds immediately to the changes in norms, values, and attitudes of their media. The impact of the language is not only external borrowing from other languages, but also the introduction of the active usage of spoken language, slang and jargon. Existed without much change over the preceding decades of speech Fund of the mass media by the change of the ideological and cultural values has changed dramatically. So, rejected many slogans, appeals, the winged words, hundreds of phraselogical combinations, which are used for decades in the previous age. Together with the updated phraselogical expressions associated with the activities of the government, the Parliament of the Republic, political parties, administrative structures, there were expressions correspond to the spirit of time (Parliament отырысы, ұлттық валютаның құлдырауы, Жас түлектер, жаңа қазақтар, әлеуметтік инфақұрылым, тоқырау жылдары, қуғын - сүргін құрбандары, өнер жұлдыздары, ашық hut, дөңгелек үстел). They have a small number (5%). Such an expression in the work of the Tuyakbaeva R  are considered in the group of lexical units, invented by means of mass information. In addition, it can be noted that they have moved into the Kazakh language in Russian with the help of calculation [22].

The analysis of practical materials research showed that in socio - political neologisms of the Kazakh language is dominated by neologisms of the first group of 59% (that is actually neologisms). It is connected with such important events in the life of the Kazakh people, as the adoption of the Law on languages of the Kazakh SSR, the acquisition of the Republic of Kazakhstan's sovereignty and independence. This brought about drastic changes in the political structure of the country: the adoption of the Constitution and state symbols, change of the state structure; in the economy: the introduction of the national currency, privatization, development of the banking system, the economic crisis of 1998; in the social sphere: the pension reforms, the construction of the new capital, the development of outer space, Kazakhs, reforms in education. So, for example: the TMU (Тәуелсіз Мемлекеттер Достығы), гендерлік oпазиция, дөңгелек үстел, электронды дауыс, impeachment, парламенттік faction and others. 
The second group includes трансноминации, that is a new word combining the novelty of the forms of a word with a value already  earlier another form. The main purpose of transpomation - to give a new more emotional the name of the object already has a neutral name, and also reflects the trend to use more expressive forms. In the course of a study of such words was revealed 7%. However, in the Kazakh language the main purpose of transpomation  - solution of the problem of normalization. A. Aldashev offers allocate compliance/non-compliance with neoplasms of the norms of language on the basis of three interrelated principles: 1) the principle of relevance; 2) the principle of correspondence; 3) the aesthetic principle. For our research interest is the principle of correspondence. The essence of this principle lies in the fact that in the values of nomination should reflect the most significant properties, vivid features of the identified objects, phenomena. In the case of non-compliance with this principle arise options nominations. For example, the presence of variants кеңтану/ қалалану; бикамерализм/ қоспалаталы парламент /екіпалаталы парламент; ғаламдану/ жаһандану and their parallel until the operation is also explained by the violation of the principle of semantic compliance. It should also be noted that today there is a process of updating the socio - political terminology. Therefore, in the modern Kazakh language has the place of such a phenomenon as the terminological synonymy. In the opinion of the Zhagidullina R.Z., studying synonymy is of particular importance for streamlining and standardization of terminological system [23].

A variety of sources now use different terminology options for the designation of one and the same term, for example: in the dictionary Momynova B. is given for the words "Deputy of the" new word in the Kazakh language "халық қалауы", however, in the periodicals are still being used both words. So in the Republican socio - political newspaper "Айқын" (2008, February) can be traced two forms of one value: "Өзіміз мүшесі болып табылатын біздің Парламентте, оның ішінде Мәжілісте депутаттардың арасында пікірлер сәйкестігі бірлік палатасының көрініс табатыны ақиқат";

In addition, in the periodicals are variants of terror/лаңкестік, candidate/үміткер, and diplomat/мәмілегер. In this case, the word, which forms the backbone neoplasm, by the accident of time, replacing the international term, first used as expressive synonym of existing words, and then due to the high frequency loses its expressive painting and transferred to the category of the term already with neutral tone, fully pushing in passive vocabulary Fund existing word. Kazakh scientific contributions W. expresses its opinion on the necessity of and normalization of term system and eliminate the use of the options in the mass media. Also in the interview to the newspaper "Panorama" he informs the essence of its concepts: " If the language is the equivalent of, definition, exactly the corresponding foreign borrowing to anything, but if no equivalent, do not be carried away by artificial creativeword". Indeed, it is necessary to agree with the opinion Sarybaeva W., as it is known, that frequent wordcombinations are engaged in the mass media of Kazakhstan, is the same word some of them are transferred, and others are used without changes.

Ways of forming words and the analysis of 50 top neologisms. The top 50 neologisms and their analysis. We present the top 50 neologisms in the following table, the data is collected on the 5^th of February, 2004 on word spy site. Now we present the table, where words are arranged according the popularity first of all, the earliest citation, the short definition, the word-building type, the sphere of usage are presented.

          We had 50 most frequently used neologisms to investigate at our disposal, it is clear that it is only a small portion of new coined words we could use, but for the convenience and the accuracy of the analysis only these words were taken. Nevertheless, even these words can prompt us about the contemporary processes in the language, and we can distinguish the most productive ways of new words to appear and the main spheres where they are needed. We can determine the major trends in the neology as well.

Culture – General-11, Food and Drink -2, Television-2, Health and Fitness-3.

Sociology – General-22, Gay and Lesbian-3, Pregnancy and Parenting -5, Men and Women-9,

Computers – General-5, Internet – 6, Hacking and Hackers-3,Wareless-3, E-mail-3

Technology – General-3, Cell Phones-4

The World – Crime-3, General -1, Politics -3,

Science – General-4, Biology-2, Psychology-4

Business – General-2, Money -1

Language – General-4

Word building means is the first thing we will do research into analyzing the chart of the most popular neologisms. According to it we can mark that the word composition and sense development are the most productive ways of coining new words. According to structural types of words, two motivating bases are employed while forming words by word composition. For instance, the word neurotheology has two clear bases, they areneuro – and – theology. Judging by the result it’s the most common way as is ‘the easiest’, as soon as you use the already existing words and put them together.

Sense development is employed when a new meaning is acquired by the already existing word, that is what we call semantic word building type. In the age of globalization, developed social links and hi-tech events, mankind needs names for them and there is a big number of such cases, as in the word quiet party along with the word composition, this type is used, words (composites of the word) are commonly known, but while analyzing we can clearly see that sense development is engaged to coin this neologism.

Blending is less popular, cases, like hathos, the blend of hate and pathos is marked.

Such types as affixation, acronimization (kippers – from «kids in parents' pockets eroding retirement savings») turned out to be not very productive. It can be explained by various reasons – 1) elaboration in forming, 2) difficulty in predicting (decoding) the information [24].

It is clear that more than 40% of the neologisms appeared in the nineties, it can be explained by the sudden jump in computer technologies and the more evident results of the sexual revolution. In the eighties, 24% of the new words were coined, that was more or less a stable period of the contemporary society. As for the 2000–2004, for this period more than 36% of the neologisms were built. That is the richest period, as the progress became faster, as well as, the time itself.

It’s the first time new words were fixed in newspapers. Such tabloids, as The independent (London), Chicago tribune, the washington post, The Australian, Canadian issues are the productive sources. The Internet sites give birth to the numerous words which deal with technologies, for instance, the esato.com gave life to the word bluejacking. Not only English speaking countries tabloids are among the sources, the jerusalem post «bore» the floortime, etc. Some other local newspapers like the denver post, florida times, the toronto star, the nation, etc. can also be called the sources. Issues, discussed at conferences (Digital Rights Management Conference) can be the reasons for the new words appearance (darknet) as well.

With the development of the society and the sexual revolution, which is still going on, new forms of relations between sexes and within family, new types of sex social status appeared. This sphere has got more new notions than ever before, since now people can easily change their sex and sexual orientation (gay and lesbian topic). Gaydar (an interesting composition Gay+ Dar, denoting a special sense while identifying gay from a straight person) or straight supermacist (a person who assumes that all heterosexuals are innately superior than homosexuals and they don’t have the right to be equally treated under the law) Moreover, there are new types of family forms and relations which explains the appearance of words, such as manny – male nanny, is a clear case in point.

Men and women links are also of interest, ¼ of all new notions (according to our investigation) make up in this sphere. Irritable Male Syndrome (-anger and irritableness in men caused by a sudden drop in testosterone levels, particularly when brought on by stress or the word) men breasts (excess fatty tissue that causes a man's chest to resemble a woman's breasts) show us how men begin to resemble a woman more and more, physically and psychologically. Or take for example, a metrosexualindividual, who spends much money on his appearance and lifestyle.

The second richest branch is Computer. New computer technologies give rise to new words. Most of them are connected with the Internet and E – mail, as the Internet offers us more and more opportunities, as well as, all computer technologies. Software in many people’s lifetime has been mostly a wonderful way to live, because we're just learning how to do it and anybody with some time and talent and initiative can try out any crazy idea. We have so much processing power and so much memory and such great tools and we still fail, most times, to produce things that are fun to use. Neologisms like, google, «spim» became an indispensable part of Internet users’ speech. One cangoogle and find any information he or she needs and the other gets spIM every time he or she uses Instant Messenger [25].

Culture sphere is developing along with the society, that is why it is the third richest. Television and food and drink branches have more fresh words, than ever now, and again, it is connected with the technological and social development. Individuals suffer from passive over-eating, that is the excessive eating of foods that are high in fat because the human body is slow to recognize the caloric content of rich foods; eating whatever is put in front of you, even to the point of discomfort. The ground for it all is the change of the life rhythm – shortage of time.

Science is the forth richest, new sciences and discoveries are made in this sphere – that is neurotheology, for example.

Technology and The world have the equal number, in the Technology branch, more than a half of all new words are connected with cell phones. The majority of civilized people have «cellys» to save time and money. Some have problems with bluejacking  while standing in a line in the supermarket (temporally hijacking another person’s cell phone by sending anonymous messages using the Bluetooth system). Or one can make 911butt call, that is definitely is not worth responding to.

Business and language are less influenced, these spheres are more or less stable,business – is because it is the matter of money. Market succeeds in creating immense quantities of (unevenly distributed) wealth, lifting people out of rural poverty and urban slums, in arranging that most people have jobs, that most things that are built that are needed, and the most things that are needed are built. These are not small accomplishments. Also, it can be marked that business is often a filthy practice. It encourages both vile venial and monstrous mortal sin, all as an organic consequence of the competitive marketplace. That explains our statistics, we have three new words, connected with this topic, and one of them deals with crime – 419 scam (fraud, making people pay money, which hope to get more later, the numbers «419» is the number of the law, prosecuting this type of a crime). The other word deals with the stock market – dead cat bounce (a temporary recovery from a major drop in a stock's price).

Language, is the sphere which is really flexible and prone to changes, but still people need more or less stable language system to communicate. New words in this sphere are kippers (an acronym) and himbo (an insult) or hathos (feelings of pleasure derived from hating someone or something), they are a rare case in point.

As we can see 18 out of 50 words have new forms, some of the new-coined words have developed a paradigm of even three parts of speech, some only one. In most cases words have a noun as another part of speech, like in words neurotheology, the new form isneurotheologian or metrosexual – metrosexuality, also straight supremacist – straight supremacy. As for creating the adjectives, we have such examples, as hathos – hathotic, or spim – antispim and lipstick lesbian – lipstick with a suffix  – ic highly employed. Verbs are also common: bluejacking – to bluejack, manscaping – to manscape, flash mob-to flash mob. Neologisms like, spim, flash mob are the brightest representatives to show how productive the words can be, they have a noun, a verb, an adjective and even they have a plural form – flash mobs, for example. Few words have a plural form. These facts show that while speaking sometimes people have to converse words into a different part of speech. The bigger paradigm of morphological forms the word develops the more probability it will have to survive for a while and even stay in the language. The reason for this event is that these new notions as well as words are gradually becoming the essential part of the civilized world [26].

According to our statistics, most words acquire a new meaning rather than a new word appears with a new notion. This can be explained by the fact, that there is not enough, we would say proper, words to express all the variety of newly created and used notions in the rapidly changing world.

New meaning were acquired when two (as it may seem) incompatible words are composed and a new word appears. For instance, words like, quiet party or global dimming, time porn were not of primary importance, moreover, there were not used and were not actual, if we take for example, the seventies or eighties of the 20^th century. These things simply did not exist, or were not popular to the same extent as they are now. Or the word does not change at all, just the new meaning is implied – kidnap.

As for the simultaneous new notions and words creation, we can note, that they were created whether by acronimization (kipper) or blending (pomosexual, hathos), those are the most productive and the simplest ways to imply two or more meanings, expressing some fresh ideas, in one word.

 

Methodology

 

My first task was to develop a list of new words. I created this list by looking in new word dictionaries, academic articles, scholarly books, Lexis-Nexis newspaper articles and online sources. All new words encountered in my ongoing reading and research were incorporated into my list of new words. My list includes a total of 152 new words.

I calculated the frequency of use for each of these new words using Lexis-Nexis Academic, a database of the text of all the major English newspapers in the world. This represented a departure from traditional corpus linguistic methods of calculating frequency, because I evaluated words over time rather than in comparison to other words in the corpus. The new words with the largest frequencies were graphed according to time with the number of occurrences along the y-axis and the year along the x-axis. Each new word was evaluated to determine what level of institutionalization it had reached (see Fischer 1998 for an explanation of the institutionalization process). This was achieved by checking to see which words had been codified in one of three dictionaries. These dictionaries were the OED Online, Dictionary.com and Netlingo which represent Standard English in the UK, the US and a specialized online language resource respectively. Next, the list of new words was then organized into the following categories: stunt or legitimate and pun or non-pun formations. Stunt and pun formations, with the largest frequencies, were determined to be of particular interest and were further studied. Finally, selected stunt words were examined in further detail using a concordance listing technique called KWIC, or “key word in context,” which displays both the selected word and its surrounding context. This helps specifically pinpoint the meaning of the new prefix each time it occurs.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

                                                PART II

FUNCTIONING OF ENGLISH, KAZAKH NEOLOGISMS

           

          2.1 The explaining of the meaning of neologism from the context

 

As this research area is so new and cross-disciplinary, no standard research technique has yet been established. As such I have had to MacGyver (note the neologism!) an unorthodox but essentially workable and effective research methodology by bringing together ideas from a variety of disciplines including English, linguistics, cultural studies and communication studies.

The basic complications during the translation of neologisms, it is the explaining of the meaning of the new word.

Particularly the translation of neologism, which meaning has already known to translator, the mission is more easy and it solves by the way of using means, being suspended for the type of the word which belongs to that neologism.

If the new word absents in English-Kazakh dictionary, as it is need to try to find it in English-Kazakh dictionary.

There are `'New words Sections'' in many famous dictionaries. In that time recommends to use dictionaries of the last issue. Many neologisms we can find in dictionaries and sections about slangs. It must remind, that more operative prepared and published dictionaries in little and middle thickness, but they can't satisfy the demands of professionals.

However, the dictionaries in objective causes can't wholly show in their all new-founded words, as for that lexis avoid to include in dictionaries such called `'occasional'' neologisms, individual new-founded, brought by the individual authors, such words also turns `'unlivable words'' and disappear as fast as they appear.

Coming out from the term `'neologism'' we can assume, that the translator first meet with his own neologism, naturally he has no imagination, about that which is explained by him.

           For that the meaning of neologism we often forced to understand it from the contexts. During the written translation the context as a rule rather informed. During the translation of the word usually secludes two periods;

1. The explaining of the meaning of the word in context;

2. Giving that meaning by the medium of WP.

         By the translating of neologism, how it says, the first period plays an important role, and the second is only just a technique question and it must solve with the methods of more usable for the WP.

         In general understanding of the context differences to micro context and macro context: under the micro context means the context of the sentence, as linguistic unit, without going out from the circle of the sentence; macro context it is compactness of linguistic unit, surrounding that unit out of the sentence, saying another word-in mixing with them sentences.

         Stable type of the macro context is impossible to show- it can be context from group of sentences, chapters or the whole creation, f. e. story, tales, articles or drama. It is very important that during the using of neologism we must pay attention to macro context, because exactly in it can be `'the prompt word''.

Micro context we can separate into syntactic and lexical. Syntactic context it is the syntactic construction in which used this word, combinations or sentence. Lexical context it is completeness of clear lexical units, words and stable word combinations, as surrounding them we meet this unit.

New words as a rule appeared on base of already existing words and morphs in language. The analyze of that words and morphs can give to the translator real help in clearing the meaning of neologism. For that is necessary to know well the mediums of word shaping in English language, like these.

Orthographic Neologisms

Neologisms form a highly relevant linguistic category for  many reasons –  they are  the elements that make a language living and dynamic rather than dead, they are indicative of language change, they form a serious obstacle in computational analysis and translation, and they help to show productive morphology of a language. Consequently, there is a substantial number of linguistic research units devoted to the observation and analysis of neologisms – OBNEO in Barcelona, ONP  in Lisbon, ONLI in Rome, CGTN in France, APRIL in Liverpool, WortWarte in Tübingen, etc. Furthermore, many of the major lexicographic publishing houses have their own methods of observing neologisms.