Variants of English language

Contents

Introduction          3

1. Varieties of the English Language      

1.1. Spread of the English Language.      5

1.2. Modern English         8

2. Variants of the English Language      

2.1. Phonetic Peculiarities of the Language Variants    13

2.2. Vocabulary Peculiarities of Variants of the English Language 16

Conclusion          22

List of Literature         23

Appendix          25

 

Introduction

Every language allows different kinds of variations: geographical or territorial, perhaps the most obvious, stylistic, the difference between the written and the spoken form of the standard national language and other.

The problem of the work is concerned with variants of English in different  various countries of the world. The reason why we have chosen this theme is that of enlargement of our knowledge of English language, of penetration in its historical past. These materials will help us to evaluate and understand the peculiarities of English language variants.

Though in the past fifteen years Sociolinguistics has come of age and is a fast expanding and increasingly popular subject it should be fair to mention here that language has always been viewed as a social phenomenon, the most important means of human intercourse. So it is evident that language is indissolubly linked with the society; in it we can see a faithful reflection of the society in which people live.

It is quite clear of course that dialectology is inseparably connected with sociolinguistics, the latter deals with language variation caused by social difference and differing social needs; it studies the ways language interacts with social reality.

We propose now a definition of this field of science: Sociolinguistics is the branch of linguistics which studies different aspects of language – phonetics, lexic and grammar with reference to their social functions in the society.

The object of this work is the English language. The subject is development of the English language in different countries and influence of other languages on the English language.

The objective is to explain language phenomena in connection with factors outside the language faculty itself in terms of large-scale social structure and in terms of how people use language to communicate with one another.

According to this purpose the primary tasks of our work are:

1. to show ways of spreading of English language all over the world;
2. to explain differences of English language varieties;
3. to compare phonetic of English variants with phonetic of Standard English;
4. to describe vocabulary peculiarities of English language variants.

To solve these tasks the complex method of research is used. It includes

• descriptive method
• historical method
• comparative method
• various types of the analysis according to the problems for each parts of the work: classification, element of semantic and statistical analysis.

Results of the research have theoretical and practical value. From theoretical point of view this work helps to study territorial variability and typology of language conditions, shows laws and tendencies of development of New Zealand, Canadian, Australian, American variants of English language.

The practical value of this work is in enlargement of our knowledge of the English language. The work gives opportunity to learn and understand the peculiarities of the English language variant in phonetic and vocabulary.

The structure of the work is defined by the tasks of the research. This work consists of introduction, two chapters, the conclusion, list of literature and appendix. In the introduction, we discover the urgency of the theme, determine the objective and tasks of our work, describe research methods, and prove theoretical and practical value of the work.

 In the first chapter, we will study ways of spreading of the English language all over the world, appearance of variants and varieties of the English language and its characteristic features.

In the second chapter of this work we will compare peculiarities in pronunciation and vocabulary of English language variants with those of Standard English.

In the conclusion, results of our research will be described.

 

1. Varieties of English Language

1. Spread of English Language.

 

British English is the broad term used to distinguish the forms of the English language used in the United Kingdom from forms used elsewhere. [12;29] The Oxford English Dictionary applies the term to English “as spoken or written in the British Isles; especially the forms of English usual in Great Britain…”[15].

The English language has been associated with migration since its first origins – the language came into being in the 5th century with patterns of people movement and resettlement. But as a world language its history began in the 17th century, most notably in the foundation of the American colonies [6; 6].

In the early 17th century The English language penetrated into America. In the course of the following centuries it spread over the greater part of North America and reached the Pacific.

Meanwhile within the British Isles the English Language gradually supplanted the Celtic languages, which had survived since the earliest times.

In the extreme South-West of England, in Cornwall, the local Celtic language, Cornish, died out in the 18th century [15;237].

English became wide-spread in Wales at about the same time. Welsh English is very similar to southern English, although the influence of Welsh has played a role in its formation.

In Ireland, which was conquered by the English in the early 17th century, struggle against English power lasted all through the 17th and 18th centuries. Towards the end of the 19th century national movement was resumed and so was the struggle for the Irish language. In 1893 the “Gaelic League” was founded, which set as its aim reviving the Irish language by way of lectures, classes, etc. The national liberation movement reached its climax in 1916 with the Irish rebellion. In 1922 the Irish Free State was established, which since 1937 bears the name of Eire. In 1949 Eire left the Commonwealth of Nations. Eire now occupies the whole territory of the island, except its north-eastern part, which under the name of Northern Ireland makes part of Britain.

The number of people speaking Irish rose from 300,000 in 1929 to 666,000 in 1961; however, most Irish people speak English [19;238].

We may recall that in Old English and Early Middle English periods the English dialects were confined to part of the British Isles: they were spoken in what is known as England proper; from the 13th to the 17th century the English language extended to the whole of the British Isles with the exception of some mountainous regions in Wales, Northern Scotland and some parts of Ireland [8;182].

 In the course of the last few centuries the English language spread over various parts of the globe [19; 238].

The number of English speaking people grew: at the end of the 11th century it is estimated at one and a half or two millions; by 1700 English had over eight million speakers. In the course of two centuries of British expansion overseas, colonization and emigration to other continents, the number of English speakers increased at such a high rate that by 1900 it had reached one hundred and twenty three million.

England’s colonial expansion to the New World began in the late 16th century when her first colonies were set up in Newfoundland (1583). But the real start came later: in 1607 the first permanent settlements were founded in Jamestown and in 1620 the famous ship “Mayflower” brought a group of English settlers to what became Known as New England. These Puritan fugitives from the Stuart absolutism came from the London area, from East Anglia and Yorkshire; later colonists came from other rigions, including Scotland and Ireland [8; 182].

In the course of the Seven Years’ War (1756-1763) the English conquered Canada, which had been a French colony. A few decades later English settlers appeared in Australia, and also New Zealand and many islands in Oceania were colonized. In the early years of the 20th century the English penetrated into South Africa and made themselves masters of the Cape Colony and of the Transvaal.

In all of these territories the English Language had to compete with other colonizers’ languages and with those of the local populations. In some cases a compromise was the result. Thus, in Canada English did not entirely supersede French. The French Canada dialect, called Afrikaans, has survived and enjoys equal rights with English [19; 238].

Australia was a place of deportation of British convicts since the late 18th century. Australia was visited by James Cook in 1770, and within twenty years Britain had established its first penal colony at Sydney, thus relieving the pressure on the overcrowded prisons in England. About 130,000 prisoners were transported during the fifty years after the arrival of the “first fleet” in 1788. “Free” settlers, as they were called, also began to enter the country from the very beginning, but they did not achieve substantial number until the mid-nineteenth century. From then on, immigration rapidly increased. By 1850, the population of Australia was about 400,000 and by 1900 nearly 4 million. In 2002, it was nearly 19 million [5; 40]. 

In New Zealand the story of English started later and moved more slowly. Captain Cook charted the islands in 1769-1770, and European whalers and traders began to settle there in the 1790s, expanding the developments already taking place in Australia. Christian missionary work began among the Maori from about 1814. However, the official colony was not established until 1840, following the Treaty of Waitangi between Maori chiefs and the British Crown. There was then a rapid increase in European immigration – from around 2,000 in 1840 to 25,000 by 1850, and to three-quarters of million by 1900 [5; 41].  

The expansion of English to Asia is mainly connected with the occupation of India. India was one of the main issues in the colonial struggle of European powers in the 18th century. The conquest of India had been prepared by the activities of the East India trade company founded in the 17th century. In the late 18th century Britain secured partial control over the administration in some of the Indian provinces. In the first half of the 19th century India became a British colony and Britain acquired other possessions in Asia, turning them into colonies, dominions or protectorates. Thus the English language extended to many areas in Asia, as the language of the state and writing.

British penetration into Africa was a lengthy affair that extended over the 19th century. In consequence of financial dependence on British capital, Sudan and Egypt fell under British political control. Tropical Africa and South Africa were raided by the British navy, as sources of slave labour for America and the West Indies. Trade companies were supported by open warfare, and in a long series of war, many African territories fell under British rule. Cecil Rhodes and H. Kitchener undertook to extend British territories, so as to connect Cairo and the Cape colony by a stretch of British land. Numerous conflicts with the Dutch settlers in South Africa led to the Anglo-Boer war of 1899-1902, which established the supremacy of the British. All these events were accompanied by the spread of English to new areas. [8; 183]

English is now the dominant or official language in over 60 countries, and is represented in every continent and in the three major oceans – Atlantic(e.g. St. Helena), Indian(e.g. Seychelles), and Pacific(e.g. Hawaii). It is this spread of the term “world language” a reality.

The present-day world status of English is primarily the result of two factors: the expansion of British colonial power, which peaked towards the end of the 19th century, and emergence of the United States as the leading economic power of the 20th century. It is the latter factor, which continues to explain the position of the English language today [5; 106].

The US linguist Braj Kachru has suggested that we think of the spread of English around the world as three concentric circles, representing different ways in which the language has been acquired and is currently used. Although not all countries fit neatly into this model, it has been widely regarded as a helpful approach.

• The inner circle refers to the traditional bases of English, where it is the primary language: it includes the USA, UK, Ireland, Canada, Australia and New Zealand.
• The outer or extended circle involves the earlier phases of the spread of English in non-native settings, where the language has become part of a country’s chief institutions, and plays an important “second language role” in a multilingual settings: it includes Singapore, India, Malawi and over fifty other territories.
• The expanding or extending circle involves those nations which recognize the importance of English as an international language , though they do not have a history of colonization by members of the inner circle, nor have they given English any special administrative status. It includes China, Japan, Greece, Poland and a steadily increasing number of other states [5; 61].

Approximately 375 million people speak English as their first language. English today is probably the third largest language by number of native speakers, after Mandarin Chinese and Spanish. However, when combining native and non-native speakers it is probably the most commonly spoken language in the world.

Estimates that include second language speakers vary greatly from 470 million to over a billion depending on how literacy or mastery is defined and measured.

The countries with the highest populations of native English speakers are, in descending order: United States (215 million), United Kingdom (61 million), Canada (18.2 million), Australia (15.5 million), Nigeria (4 million), Ireland (3.8 million), South Africa (3.7 million), and New Zealand (3.6 million) 2006 Census.

English is, by international treaty, the official language for aerial and maritime communications. It is an official language of the United Nations and many other international organizations, including the International Olympic Committee. English is the language most often studied as a foreign language in the European Union (by 89% of schoolchildren), followed by French (32%), German (18%), Spanish (8%), and Russian; while the perception of the usefulness of foreign languages amongst Europeans is 68% English, 25% French, 22% German, and 16% Spanish.

Books, magazines, and newspapers written in English are available in many countries around the world. English is also the most commonly used language in the sciences [25]. More than 28 per cent of books in the world are published in English.

There have been two main historical mechanisms for the spread of English. First was the colonial expansion of Britain which resulted in settlements of English speakers in many parts of the world. In the 20th century, the role of the US has been more important than that of Britain and has helped ensure that the language is not only at the forefront of scientific and technical knowledge, but also leads consumer culture. Thus English is the most widely spread language in the world. It is official language in more than 60 countries and it is the language used by most of international organizations. It is the most widely used foreign language for book publication. We can say that English is a “world language”.

 

2. Modern English

Modern English is the form of the English language spoken since the Great Vowel Shift in England, completed in roughly 1550 [26]. English was adopted in regions around the world, such as North America, India, Africa, and Australia, through colonization by the British Empire.

Nowadays the English language has several varieties, such as variants, dialects, accents and hybrids, which differ from standard language.

The spoken standard or, as it is called in Britain, Received Pronunciation, often abbreviated RP, is something that varies different parts of English-speaking world. In Britain it is a type of English perhaps best exemplified in speech of those educated in the great public schools but spoken also with a fair degree of uniformity by cultivated in all parts of the country. It is a class rather than a regional dialect. This is not the same as the spoken standard of the United Stated or Canada or Australia [3; 296].

Modern linguistics distinguishes territorial variants of a national language and local dialects. Variants of a language are regional varieties of a standard literary language characterized by some minor peculiarities in the sound system, vocabulary and grammar and by their own literary norms. Dialects are varieties of a language used as a means of oral communication in small localities, they are set off (more or less sharply) from other varieties by some distinctive features of pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary [9; 200].

We must make clear that, when we refer to varieties in pronunciation only, we use the word «accent». So local accents may have many features of pronunciation in common and consequently are grouped into territorial or area accents.

In Great Britain there are two variants, Scottish English and Irish English, and five main groups of dialects: Northern, Midland, Eastern, Western and Southern. Every group contains several (up to ten) dialects.

About variants that are out of Great Britain, we will say in the next chapter. Now we represent the most characteristic features of main dialects of England and the USA, Australian accents, hybrid languages and creoles.

One of the best known Southern dialects is Cockney. The term Cockney has both geographical and linguistic associations. Geographically and culturally, it often refers to working class Londoners, particularly those in the East End. Linguistically, it refers to the form of English spoken by this group. According to E. Partridge and H.C. Wylde, this dialect exists on two levels. As spoken by the educated lower middle classes it is a regional dialect marked by some deviations in pronunciation but few in vocabulary and syntax. As spoken by the uneducated, Cockney differs from Standard English not only in pronunciation but also in vocabulary, morphology and syntax [16;262].

Southern English also include East Anglian, Estuary, Kentish Multicultural London English and Sussex dialects [24].

Multicultural London English (abbreviated MLE), colloquially called Blockney or Jafaican, is a dialect of English that emerged in the late 20th century. It is spoken mainly by youths in inner London [29].

Estuary English is a name given to the dialect of English widely spoken in South East England, especially along the River Thames and its estuary. Phonetician John C. Wells defines Estuary English as "Standard English spoken with the accent of the southeast of England" [6;327].

The most characteristic features of the Southern dialects are as follows: M. E. [a] has changed into [æ]; thus man is pronounced [m æ n]. Initial [h] is dropped. In some of these dialects, the voiceless [s], [f], [θ] are not used initially; the corresponding voiced phonemes [z], [v], [ð], are used instead. [dr] corresponds to initial [ðr] of R. P. [ŋ] is not used in unstressed positions; [n] is used instead [29].

Northern English is a group of dialects of the English language. It includes the North East England dialects, which is similar in some respects to Scots. Among the other dialects are Cumbrian, Tyke (Yorkshire dialect), Lanky (Dialect of Lancashire) and Scouse.

In some areas, it can be noticed that dialects and phrases can vary greatly within regions too. For example, the Lancashire dialect has many sub-dialects and varies noticeably from town to town. Even within as little as 5 miles there can be an identifiable change in accent. The Yorkshire Dialect Society has always separated West Riding dialect from that in the North and East ridings.

Common features of most Northern English accents are:

• The absence of the /ʌ/ vowel, for which the /ʊ/ vowel is substituted. This has led to Northern England being described "Oop North" /ʊp nɔːθ/.
• A short /a/ in words like ask, grass, bath, where south-eastern accents have a broad A /ɑː/ [28].

There are also American dialects. They are Northern, Southern and Midland. The Northern division includes the New England settlement area, upstate New York and the Hudson Valley, NE Ohio, and beyond. The Midland division extends south from N. Pennsylvania and parts of New Jersey, and west into C. Ohio and beyond; its southern boundary swings in an arc from C. Delaware along the Blue Ridge Mountains of Virginia, and into the Carolinas. The Southern division comprises the southern two thirds of Delaware, the eastern parts of Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina, most of South Carolina, and the Gulf States [6; 313].

The differences in pronunciation between American dialects are most apparent, but they seldom interfere with understanding. Distinctions in grammar are scarce. The differences in vocabulary are rather numerous, but they are easy to pick up. Cf., e.g., Eastern New England sour-milk cheese, Inland Northern Dutch cheese, New York City pot cheese for Standard American cottage cheese (творог) [9; 203].

Three main varieties of Australian English are spoken according to linguists: Broad, General and Cultivated. They are part of a continuum, reflecting variations in accent. They often, but not always, reflect the social class or educational background of the speaker.

Cultivated accent used by about 10 per cent of the population, on which Received Pronunciation continues to exert a considerable influence. In some speakers, the accent is very close to educated southern British, with just a hint of its Australian origin in certain vowels and in the intonation.

Broad accent used by about 30 per cent of the population, is the most clearly identified with the notion of an “Australian twag”.

General is a mainstream group of accents used by most of the population [6; 351].