Автор: Пользователь скрыл имя, 24 Ноября 2011 в 19:36, реферат
A living language leads a dynamic existence, it is constantly developing its internal and external resources, adapting to ever changing circumstances of social, cultural, political and scientific life, generating new forms and content and abandoning old ones, improving its expressive means and devices through their structural complication or simplification. Language is one of those spheres of human activity that are the first to bring reaction to social and other kinds of changes in human life and activities.
INTRODUCTION
A living language leads a dynamic existence, it is constantly developing its internal and external resources, adapting to ever changing circumstances of social, cultural, political and scientific life, generating new forms and content and abandoning old ones, improving its expressive means and devices through their structural complication or simplification. Language is one of those spheres of human activity that are the first to bring reaction to social and other kinds of changes in human life and activities. Every social or political change, revolution, innovation is preceded by introduction of new words and terms, many of which are only euphemisms: "enemy of the people" (French and Russian revolution), "bourgeois nationalism" (communist USSR), "the final solution of the Jewish question" (fascist Germany), "iron curtain", "perestroika" (Gorbachev reforms), etc. All these terms had corresponding consequences after being proclaimed.
Our aim is to find out types of English and Ukrainian neologisms and to outline their productivity.
The object of research is English and Ukrainian neologisms.
The subject - types of English and Ukrainian neologisms.
At the present moment English is developing very swiftly and there is so called “neology blowup”. R. Berchfield who worked at compiling a four-volume supplement to NED says that averagely 800 neologisms appear every year in Modern English. It has also become a language-giver recently, especially with the development of comput-erization.
Neologisms can develop in three main ways: a lexical unit existing in the language can change its meaning to denote a new object or phenomenon. In such cases we have semantic neologisms, e.g. the word “umbrella” developed the meanings: “авиационное прикрытие”, “политическое прикрытие”. A new lexical unit can develop in the language to denote an object or phenomenon which already has some lexical unit to denote it. In such cases we have transnomination, e.g. the word “slum” was first substituted by the word “ghetto” then by the word group “inner town”. A new lexical unit can be introduced to denote a new object or phenomenon. In this case we have “a proper neologism”, many of them are cases of new terminology.
Neologisms can be also classified according to the ways they are formed. They are subdivided into: phonological neologisms, borrow-ings, semantic neologisms and syntactical neologisms. Syntactical neologisms are divided into morphological /word-building/ and phraseological /forming word-groups/.
Phonological neologisms are formed by combining unique sounds, they are called artificial, e.g. rah-rah /a short skirt which is by girls during parades/, yeck/yuck which are interjections to express repulsion produced the adjective yucky/yecky. These are strong neologisms. Strong neologisms also include phonetic borrowings, such as perestroika /Russian/, solidarnost /Polish, Berufsverbot /German/, dolce vita /Italian/ etc.
Morphological and syntactical neologisms are usually built on patterns existing in the language , therefore they do not belong to the group of strong neologisms.
Among morphological neologisms there are a lot of abbreviations of different types such as resto, teen/teenager/, dinky /dual income no kids yet/, ARC /AIDS-related condition, infection with AIDS/, HIV /human immuno-deficiency virus/.
Phraseological neologisms can be subdivided into phraseological units with transferred meanings e.g. to buy into /to become involved/, fudge and dudge /avoidance of definite decisions/, and set non-idiometic expressions, e.g. electronic virus, Rubic’s cube, acid rain, boot trade etc. [3:36].
There are five major morphological processes that affect roots and stems and which lead to the production of new words. Those processes are affixation, compounding, symbolism, reduplication and suppletion.
A. Affixation consists in adding derivational affixes (i.e., prefixes, infixes and suffixes) to roots and stems to form new words. For example, if the suffix -able is added to the word pass, the word passable is created. Likewise, if to the word passable the prefix in- (or rather its allomorph im-) is attached, another word is formed, namely impassable. Affixation is a very common and productive morphological process in synthetic languages. In English, derivation is the form of affixation that yields new words.The most productive affixes are the following: prefixes: e, anti, super, over, i , un; and suffixes: er, ing, ness, like, y, ish. It’s very significant the appearance and distribution of the new suffixes – e and i.
B. Compounding consists in the combination of two or more (usually free) roots to form a new word. For example, the word blackboard, heartfelt, brother-in-law are compound words; they are made up of the roots (at the same time words themselves) black and board, heart and felt, brother, in and law, respectively. Compounding is a very common process in most languages of the world (especially among synthetic languages).
C. Symbolism (or morpheme internal change) consists in altering the internal phonemic structure of a morpheme to indicate grammatical functions. For example, in order to form the plurals of goose \gu…s\ and tooth \tu…T\ in English, the phoneme \u…\ is replaced by the phoneme\i…\, thus yielding the plural forms geese \gi…s\ and teeth \ti…T\, respectively. It is important to point out that the new words created by the process of symbolism are usually considered irregular forms and have come to be as a result of historical changes in the development of the language.
D.Reduplication consists in the repetition of all or of part of a root or stem to form new words. If the entire root or stem is repeated, the process is called complete (or total) reduplication, and the new word is considered as a repetitive compound. Total reduplication is fairly frequent in Indonesian, Tojolabal (Mexico), Hausa (Sudan), and Hawaiian. It is used to form the plural of nouns, as in [rumah] ‘house’, [rumahrumah] ‘houses’; [ibu] ‘mother’ [ibuibu] ‘mothers’; [lalat]‘fly’, [lalatlalat] ‘flies’. In Hawaiian, holo means 'run', holoholo 'go for a walk or ride'; lau means 'leaf', laulau 'leaf food package'. If only a part of the root or stem is repeated, the process is called partial reduplication, and the repeated portion is called a reduplicative.
E. Suppletion consists in a complete change in the form of a root (i.e., a word) or in the replacement of root by another morphologically unrelated root with the same component of meaning in different grammatical contents. For example, good and well change to better and best in the comparative and superlative. Similarly, bad and badly change to worse and worst. Suppletive forms help to fill gaps in grammatical paradigms of the language [2:23].
Another way of creating neologisms is blending. This word building process
performs in case if two or more words combine in toonel exeme losing some of their
parts. It has to be taken into account that there is no definite regularity or linguistic
rule in the processes of blending. The form of the words, as a rule, changes
unexpectedly. Such words as Brielieve, Chindia, Eurabia, Obamanomics,
Obamajamas, corporatocracy, craugh, Crunchmas, Palinthusiasm, webinar etc. were
created according to the following pattern:
China+India→Chindia, cry+laugh→craugh, Europe+Arabia→Eurabia
Obama+pyjamas→Obamajamas [3:45].
1.2 Productive patterns of their building.
The most widely used patterned means are: affixation (suffixation and
prefixation); conversion; composition.Neologisms coined by these means
are made up of elements already available in the language. The novelty
of them lies in the particular combination of these elements.The affixes that
are thought to be the most productive are: -ness, -er, mini-, over-:
e.g.: a roomer, well-to-do-ness, thingness, oneness etc. The most productive
patterns of forming new nouns are: Verb + -er , e.g.: brain-washer,
double-talker; Verb + -ing, e.g.: cracking, phreaking. The most frequent
ways of verb coinage are: un- + verb, e.g.: unhook, undo, unbreak; (adjective/noun
+ noun) + -ed, e.g.: long-legged, flat-bottomed. The most widely used
ways of forming new adjectives are: verb + -able, e.g.: attachable,
livable-in; un- + Participle I or II, e.g.: unguarded, unheard-of; un-
+ adverb, e.g.: unsouled, uncool. Conversion, or zero- inflection, is
a special non-affixal type of transforming a word into another part
of speech. The most frequently used patterns of conversion are: Noun
– verb. E.g.: a butcher – to butcher, a boss – to boss, Verb –
noun. E.g.: to know how – the know-how, to catch – the catch, Adjective
– noun. E.g.: intellectual – the intellectual, progressive – the
progressive, Noun – adjective. E.g.: a maiden – maiden, a sidelong
– sidelong. Composition of words is compounding a word of smaller words.
E.g.: fish-in, laugh-in etc.The second component of compound nouns often
becomes centers of inventions by analogy. For instance, the component sick in seasick
and homesick led to invention of space-sick, airsick, carsick etc. Quake in
There are neologisms in Ukrainian language which denote new concepts, phenomena and subjects: консюмеризм, полтергейст, прайс-лист. There are also synonymic neologisms, which refer speaker’s attitude of known concepts, phenomena and subjects in a new way, italicizing some original feature: бутік, кілер, людомор, поморівок, електорат. Among the new words that actively enrich the lexical-semantic subsystem of any language word-formative neologisms occupy a prominent place. Each lingual system uses possibilities of morphemic combination laid in it, and always attracts foreign language morphemes: необільшовик, політбомонд, спікерство, працетерапія, червонохрестівець "співробітник організації "Товариство Червоного Хреста", снідоносний, безкредитний and others.
Enrichment of vocabulary is due to semantic neologisms. Neologisms are almost never created from unknown elements of the language. Usually well known words are used, the semantic component of which is able to be used in a figurative sense and then set up as independent figurative sense: саркофаг=спеціальна споруда над ядерними реакторами, установками, призначена для захисту довкілля від радіоактивних речовин, чорнобиль=назва нового комп'ютерного віруса, марафон=тривала і напружена боротьба за щось, тайм-аут=перерва, відпочинок and others.
In modern linguistics, there
Author or individual
Some of the neologisms created by writers became common one. It concerns mostly to the writers of the 19th century and first half of 20th century:
Conclusions
The explosion of recent lexicological activity in the Contemporary Ukrainian in the beginning of the XXI century is evident. Neologisms have been utilized on a steady and consistent basis. Additional shades of meaning have been added to certain words leading to some reconnotations of their meanings. Even the basic core of political, business, mass media lexicon have been reshaped and reevaluated. The lexicological system of the Ukrainian language is in constant flux and motion.
English is developing very swiftly and there is so called “neology blowup”. R. Berchfield who worked at compiling a four-volume supplement to NED says that averagely 800 neologisms appear every year in Modern English. It has also become a language-giver recently, especially with the development of comput-erization.
In this research I found out that there are a lot of types of English
and Ukrainian neologisms. As English is more worldwide it has too much
neologisms in any sphere but Ukrainian is developing language. Ukrainian
language is more specific due to the author or individual neologisms
and English is language-giver recently, so it’s neologisms can be
devided withing a lot of ways: phonological neologisms, borrow-ings,
semantic neologisms and syntactical neologisms; processes of affixation,
compounding, symbolism, reduplication and suppletion and so on.
Literature
Electronic resourses