Theory of Translation

 

Equivalence of Phrase Level

 

Equivalence at phrase level is of two kinds: a SL word corresponds to a TL phrase (to negotiate – вести переговоры), a SL phrase corresponds to a TL word (Hippies are in revolt against an acquisitive society. – Хиппи восстают против потребительского общества).

 

Equivalence at Sentence Level

 

It occurs: a) in phraseology – two is company, three is none – третий лишний; b) in orders and regulations – keep off the grass – по газону не ходить.

 

Equivalence at Text Level

 

It is usual in the translation of poetry as seen in the translation of William Blake’s stanza by S. Marshak.

1. To see a World in a Grain of Sand,
2. And a Heaven in a Wild Flower,
3. Hold Infinity in the palm of your hand,
4. And Eternity in an hour.       (W. Blake, Auguries of Innocence)

4. В одно мгновенье видеть вечность,

1. Огромный мир – в зерне песка,

3. В единой горсти – бесконечность
2. И небо – в чашечке цветка.

 

The translation by S.Marshak may be regarded as excellent. The text as a unity is reproduced most fully and this conception of unity justifies the change in the order of the lines within the stanza.

A strict observance of equivalence at all levels ensures a similar reaction on the part of the S and T language receptors and can be achieved by means of functional substitutions.

 

TYPES OF TRANSLATION

 

The following three types of translation can be distinguished: equivalent translation, literal translation and free translation.

 

Equivalent translation

 

Equivalent translation has been considered in the preceding pages. Achieving equivalence is the goal aimed at in translation.

 

Literal translation

 

In spite of the fact that there are cases of semantic and structural coincidences they are rather an exception. A literal or word translation is obviously unacceptable because it results in a violation of form, or a distortion of sense, or both.

No desire on the part of the translator to preserve in his translation the lexical, grammatical or stylistic peculiarities of the original text can justify any departure from the norms of the TL.

Literal translation imposes upon the TL text alien lexical and grammatical structures, alien collocability, alien connotations and alien stylistic norms.

In literal translation form prevails over content and the meaning of the text is distorted. Literalism may be lexical, grammatical or stylistic, e.g.

 

He wagged a grateful tail and climbed on the seat (Georgetta Heyer).

Он благодарно завилял хвостом и вскарабкался на сиденьею

 

She was letting her temper go by inches (Monica Dickens).

Она понемногу теряла терпение. (Она все больше и больше теряла терпение).

 

The pragmatic aspect of translation does not admit literalism either – and requires interpreting translation or substitution.

 

The Tory Team, however, aren’t all batting on the same wicket.

The metaphor is taken from cricket, a very popular game in Britain but hardly known to Russian readers.

Однако, консерваторы не едины.

Однако, команда  консерваторов играла не дружно.

 

Translation Loans

 

Literal translation should not be confused with translation loans. A translation loan is a peculiar form of word-borrowing by means of literal translation. Translation loans are built on the pattern of foreign words or phrases with the elements of the borrowing language, e.g. collective farm is a translation loan of the Russian колхоз but in a full and not in an abbreviated form: oil dollars -нефтедоллары; goodneighbourly relations – добрососедские отношения (a full loan); war effect (a partial loan as number does not coincide).

 

Free Translation

 

Free translation, that is, paraphrasing is a special type of translation used as a rule in annotations, précis, abstracts, etc. free translation is rendering of meaning regardless of form. The aim of such translation is to convey information to people in other countries in a most compact and condensed manner.

There is another interpretation of the term “Free translation”.

The translator in this case considers himself as co-author and takes great liberties with the original text resorting to unjustified expansion or omissions.

“She burst out crying” is translated as “Слезы показались на глазах моей милой малютки” (Ch. Dickens, tr. By J.V. Vedensky).

TO CONCLUDE: the three parameters of translation are: rendering of contents, rendering of form and observance of TL norms. These fundamentals are of equal significance and are to be duly taken into account in the process of translation. The vast resources of the Russian language enable the translator to achieve excellent and the fundamental principle of translation – what is said in one language can as well be said in another – remains inviolable.

 

 

CHAPTER TWO

GRAMMATICAL PROBLEMS

 

General considerations

 

Equivalence, as has been pointed in the previous chapter, is achieved by different transformations: grammatical, lexical, stylistic. The present chapter deals with grammatical transformations and their causes. The causes generating these transformations are not always purely grammatical but may be lexicalas well, though grammatical causes naturally prevail due to differences in the SL and TL grammatical structures.

Not infrequently, grammatical and lexical causes are so closely interwoven that the required transformations are of a twofold character. The following example illustrates this point.

 

The vigil of the U.S. Embassy supported last week by many prominent people and still continuing, the marches last Saturday, the resolutions of organizations have done something to show that the Prime Minister does not speak for Britain.

Круглосуточная  демонстрация у здания американского посольства, получившая на прошлой неделе поддержку многих видных деятелей, все еще продолжается. Эта демонстрация и состоявшиеся в субботу походы, а также принятые различными организациями резолюции, явно свидетельствуют о том, что премьер-министр отнюдь не говорит от имени всего английского народа.

 

A number of lexical and grammatical transformations have been effected in: 1) the long English sentence in which the subject is expressed by three homogeneous members (the vigil, the marches, the resolutions) is translated by two separate Russian sentences. The structure of the English sentence is typical of the structure of brief notes or of leads which usually contain miscellaneous information on the principles of “who, what, when, where and how”. This, however, is not usual in Russian newspaper style. The word демонстрация is repeated as both sentences have the same subject. 2) The word “vigil” has recently developed a new meaning – “around the clock demonstration”. This new meaning is accordingly rendered by two words (круглосуточная демонстрация); similarly, the participle “supported” is also rendered by two Russian words (получившая поддержку); 3) a number of additional words have been introduced: у здания (посольства), состоявшиеся (в субботу походы), а также принятые различными (организациями резолюции). 4) The word “last” has been omitted as its meaning is implied in the Russian adverbial of time (в субботу); 5) The emphatic meaning of the predicate with its object (have done something to show) is conveyed by the adverb явно. 6) The cliché (speak for Britain) is rendered by a corresponding cliché говорить от имени. 7) Finally, the metonymy (Britain) is translated by the words it stands for весь английский народ.

Strictly speaking only the translation of the complex sentence by meaning of two sentences can be regarded as a purely grammatical transformation, whereas all the other transformations are of a mixed character – both lexical and grammatical.

 

Grammatical Features Typical of Modern English

 

Naturally only some features of Modern English will be considered here.

The deeply rooted tendency for compactness has stimulated a wide use of various verbal complexes: the infinitive complex, the gerundial complex, the participial complex, the absolute nominative construction. The same tendency is displayed in some pre-positional attributes: the N1 + N2 attributive model, attributive groups, attributive phrases. None of them has any equivalents in Russian grammar and as a rule they require decompression in translation. Causative constructions also illustrate this tendency for compactness.

 

He …soon twinkled Paul out of his sulks (R.F.Dalderfield).

Он начал подмигивать  Полю и тот перестал дуться.

 

Translation is sometimes impeded by the existence of grammatical homonymy in Modern English. For example, the Gerund and Participle I are homonyms. The analytical forms of the Future-in-the-Past are homonyms with the forms of the Subjunctive mood: should (would) + infinitive. The difficulty is aggravated by a homonymous form of the Past Indefinite of the verb “will” expressing volition. The Infinitive of Purpose and the Infinitive of Subsequent Action may easily be confused. Grammatical homonymy may often be puzzling and may sometimes cause different interpretations. In such cases recourse should be taken to a wider context, e.g.

 

What we stand for is winning all over the world. (L. Barkhudarov, Lectures).

 

The translation of the sentence depends on the grammatical interpretation of the –ing form, i.e. whether it is interpreted as Participle I or as a Gerund. According to the former interpretation, the word combination “is + winning” is the form of the Present Continuous Tense; according to the latter, it is a nominal predicate – link verb + Predicative. These different interpretations result in different translations:

 

1. То, за что мы выступаем, одерживает победу во всем мире.
2. Мы стоим за то, чтобы добиться победы во всем мире.

 

A different grammatical interpretation involves a different political interpretation.

 

Non-equivalents

 

Some English grammatical forms and structures have no corresponding counterparts in Russian, others have only partial equivalents. The first group) non-equivalents) includes articles, the gerund and the Past Perfect Tense.

Articles. The categories of definiteness and indefiniteness are universal but the ways and means of expressing these notions vary in different languages.

In English this function is fulfilled by the articles whereas in Russian by word order. Both the definite and indefinite articles in English are meaningful and their meanings and their functions cannot be ignored in translation.

Every utterance falls into two parts – the so-called theme and rheme. The theme indicates the subject of the utterance while the rheme contains the information about the subject. The theme, in other words, represents a known thing, which has probably been mentioned before, whereas the rheme introduces some new information. Thus the theme is the starting point of the utterance and as such it can sometimes introduce a new subject about which the rheme gives some information. In this case the indefinite article is used to indicate indefiniteness. The theme usually occupies the initial position in the sentence. The theme in the English language with its fixed word order usually coincides with the grammatical subject of the sentence. When the theme again occurs in the text it is preceded by the definite article.

 

A lady entered the compartment. The lady sat down in the corner seat

(P.G.Wodehouse).

The categories of indefiniteness and definiteness are expressed by the indefinite and the definite articles respectively and these categories are rendered by word order in translation.

 

В купе вошла дама. Дама села в углу у окна.

 

When the articles are charged with some other meanings apart from the categories of definiteness and indefiniteness lexical means come into play in translation.

If these meanings are not rendered lexically the Russian sentence is semantically incomplete.

 

The influence and authority of the Secretariat depends to an extent (though not nearly to the extent that is popularly supposed) on the talents of one individual – the Secretary-General. (Peter Lyon, The U.N. in Action).

Влияние и авторитет  Секретариата зависит в какой-то степени (хотя и не в такой степени, как обычно считают) от способностей одного человека – Генерального секретаря.

 

The Gerund. Another non-equivalent form is the gerund. It fulfils various functions in the sentence and can be translated by different means.

 

“I wonder at Jolion’s allowing this engagement”, he said to Aunt Ann

(J. Galsworthy).

«Я удивляюсь, что Джолион разрешил эту помолвку», – сказал он тетушке Энн.

 

The gerund modified by a proper noun in the possessive case is translated by a subordinate clause.

The gerund used in the function of a prepositional object is also rendered in translation by a subordinate clause.

 

The mayor of the island is talking of opening up its lush and virgin interior to beef-and-dairy cattle ranching.

Мэр острова поговаривает о том, чтобы использовать сочные, нетронутые луга его внутренней части для мясомолочного хозяйства.

 

The so-called half-gerund may also be translated by a subordinate clause.

 

There was nothing more to say: which didn’t prevent, as the game went on, a good deal more being said.                           (G.F.Snow).

Говорить больше было не о чем, но это не помешало тому, что в ходе игры было сказано еще очень много.

 

The Past Perfect Tense. The meaning of the Past Perfect Tense is usually rendered in Russian by some adverbs of time.

 

The stone heat of the day had gentled down.        (I.Shaw).

Жар, который шел днем от раскаленных камней, уже спал.

 

But in many cases the Past Perfect Tense is translated by the Russian Past Tense without any temporal specification.

 

The mainspring of his existence was taken away when she died… Ellen was the audience before which the blustering drama of Gerald O’Hara had been played.                     (M. Mitchell).

Опора его  существования исчезла с ее смертью. …Эллин была той публикой, перед которой разыгрывалась бурная драма Джеральда О’Хара.

 

Partial Equivalence

 

SL and TL grammatical forms hardly ever coincide fully. The scope of their meaning and their functions and usage generally differ, therefore these forms are mostly partial equivalents.

The category of number in English and in Russian is a casein point. Most often the use of the singular and the plural in the two languages coincides. But divergences in the use of the singular and the plural appear in the first place in the so-called Singularia and Pluralia Tantum, that is, in those nouns which have either only a singular or a plural form, e.g. gate – ворота, ink – чернила, money – деньги, and vice versa: gallows – виселица, news – новости. Sometimes a countable noun in English and in Russian, E.G. talent – talents; талант – таланты develops a new LSV (lexical-semantic variant) which is used as an uncountable noun.

 

Britain is the source of phrase “brain drain”  which describes the movement of British talent to the United States.

Выражение «утечка умов», которое означает эмиграцию английских специалистов в Соединенные Штаты, впервые появилось в Великобритании.

 

Abstract nouns are more often used in the plural in English than in Russian, e.g.

The struggles of many sections of the U.S. population against the war-lovers in America have grown to a height never reached before.

Борьба многих групп населения Соединенных Штатов против сторонников войны достигла небывалого размаха.

 

Allende’s political skills made him four times candidate for the presidency.

Политический опыт Альенде обеспечил четырехкратное выдвижение его кандидатуры на пост президента.

 

The semantic volume of the word “skills” justifies its translation by two Russian words both used in the singular.

Опыт и  искусство Альенде как политического деятеля…

 

Sometimes different usage prevents a strict observance of he category of number in translation, e.g.

 

The right to work is ensured by the democratic organization of the national economy, the growth of the productive forces and the elimination of crisis and unemployment.

Право на труд обеспечивается демократической организацией народного  хозяйства, ростом производительных сил и отсутствием кризисов и безработицы.

 

The plural form in Russian (кризисов) achieves the required degree of generalization.

There is also a tendency in English o use nouns like “eye, “cheek”, “lip”, “ear”, “limb”, etc. in the singular, e.g.

 

He always thought of her as seventeen or so, clean of limb, beautiful of feature and filled with the impatience for life.   (R. Wilder).

Он всегда представлял ее себе какой она  была лет в семнадцать – красивые черты лица, стройные ноги и безудержная жажда жизни.

 

The noun “limb” can also be rendered metonymically – прелестная фигура.

There is also a considerable difference between the use of the Passive voice in English and in Russian. The English language allows different types of passive constructions and there are a number of verbs in English which can be used in the passive voice while the correlated verbs in Russian cannot. For example, many English verbs are used both as transitive and intransitive.

 

Original samples of Paris clothing have been flown to London to illustrate lectures to the fashion industry.

Новые модели парижских  туалетов были доставлены самолетом в Лондон для показа во время лекций представителям английских домов моделей.

 

English verbs with a prepositional object are also used in the passive voice, a construction non-existing in Russian.

 

Lovers if familiar symphonic fare are catered for with two Brahms symphonies and First Piano Concerto by Beethoven.

Любителей часто исполняемой  симфонической музыки в нынешнем сезоне угощают двумя симфониями Брамса и Первым фортепианным концертом Бетховена.

 

The impersonal passive with a preposition is translated by an impersonal construction.

 

The increase in the family allowances that was widely hoped for has come to nothing.

Увеличение пособия  многодетным семьям, на которое все  так надеялись, не осуществилось.