Автор: Пользователь скрыл имя, 19 Февраля 2013 в 12:43, реферат
Two individuals might diametrically oppose reasons for supporting a government, but they both may support the existence of government. For example, Thomas Jefferson stated that a government should be established to secure our individual inalienable rights. In comparison, Benito Mussolini said, “Fascism conceives of the State as an absolute, in comparison with which all individuals or groups are relative, only to be conceived in their relation to the State.” Я не поняла смысл последней фразы- кто или что из чего происходит
Julia Dubovskaya, Public Administration and Law, Group 205
The ideal government The idea of world government. Идея о всемирном правительствеМое предложение
For ages, people have tried to construct the most ideal form of government. By “ideal,” I mean that one which fulfills its purpose.
Two individuals might diametrically oppose reasons for supporting a government, but they both may support the existence of government. For example, Thomas Jefferson stated that a government should be established to secure our individual inalienable rights. In comparison, Benito Mussolini said, “Fascism conceives of the State as an absolute, in comparison with which all individuals or groups are relative, only to be conceived in their relation to the State.” Я не поняла смысл последней фразы- кто или что из чего происходит
As the argument goes on, men are not angels, so government is necessary to resolve disputes that arise. But what is a government? John Locke put much thought into this and decided that a functioning government needed to satisfy three arising “inconveniences” in a anarchic society. Locke believed there should be an authorized, constant law by which all disputes are controlled. Secondly, he believed there should be a sufficient threat of force behind those rulings so they are followed. Thirdly, a government would need to function as an independent judge of disputes.
The only way to remotely satisfy all three “inconveniences” is to establish a world government. Governments exist now in a state of anarchy with one another as there is no supra-government that lives up to Locke’s standards to enforce international laws and agreements. Because of their ability to offset the costs of aggression with taxes, governments pose a far graver danger to peace and security than regular criminals do, so world government is imperative if local or national governments exist. Citizens of other( каких других стран- Вы ведь не упомянули ни одной страны) countries also exist in a state of anarchy with citizens of other countries, although this seems to be less of a problem than government-on-government coercion. Я не поняла смысл…..Кто против кого? The United Nations is the closest thing that resembles world government, yet it does not have the power to coercively impose taxes on member citizens. Member nations voluntarily fund the UN, and it does not possess the enforcement power to make its resolutions binding.
Even if world government is capable of enforcing its rulings its members would still exist in a state of anarchy because no one external to the government enforces rules upon the lawmakers. The one way to reduce conflicts within the government is to reduce the number of government officials. Conceivably, the least populated government would rest power in a single person to avoid incidences of anarchic relationships. Now, admittedly, even this would not entirely end the existence of anarchy since the dictator would also exist in a state of anarchy with everyone else on the planet. Yet, a worldwide dictatorship would be the most ideal government, should one exist, to eliminate anarchic relationships. Я не поняла смысл…..
For Jeffersonians, world government would be a nightmarish thought at first blush. Many Jeffersonians also believe that government is inevitable, that some form of government will always exist. That is certainly a theory and all the reasons to support immediately the establishing of a world dictatorship of limited powers.
For the Mussolini crowd, a worldwide dictatorship would soon enough make “the State as an absolute” into reality.
I am facetious at the moment in advocating a worldwide dictatorship. But a world government is where support for any government inevitably leads its supporters. Что хотели сказать? In fact, a worldwide dictatorship of limited powers would quickly dissolve into complete tyranny. (Hint: Hierarchical power structures are not responsive to demands for accountability.)
What we see is the more that power is disproportionately divided among people, the more violence tends to erupt and corruption festers. Government is so dangerous precisely because it can externalize the costs of its violence onto captive taxpayers. The more that power is dispersed and divided, the greater the rights are respected and peace prevails. The profit and loss mechanism and competition, which is not the impossibility of constant vigilance, provide a natural check on the size of business enterprises and the power they can aggregate to themselves.
In fact, the ideal form of government is none at all (can’t exist)??????since its purpose, from a rights-respecting perspective, is impossible. Что хотели сказать?That does not mean a lack of governance or rule-making in society. A society without the ability to bring order would quickly be not a society at all. The absence of monopolistic government does not mean everyone will be of a pure heart and display empathy for the fellow men. Precisely because we are not the angels, rules and rules enforcement should not be centrally commanded and controlled.
Юля! Я прочитала все, но есть места, в которых я не могу понять смысл- я не знаю, что Вы хотели сказать. Эти места надо переделать или убрать если их отсутствие не исказит смысл…. Мне просто одной этого не сделать, я не владею данной темой, тема оооочень скользкая…. Она может быть надежной?!?
Посмотрите мой материал……
Local governments are administrative offices that are smaller than a state. The term is used to contrast with offices at nation-state level, which are referred to as the central government, national government, or (where appropriate) federal government.
In modern nations, local governments usually have fewer powers than national governments do. They usually have some power to raise taxes, though these may be limited by central legislation. In some countries local government is partly or wholly funded by subventions from central government taxation. The question of Municipal Autonomy—which powers the local government has, or should have, and why—is a key question of public administration and governance. The institutions of local government vary greatly between countries, and even where similar arrangements exist, the terminology often varies. Common names for local government entities include state, province, region, department, county, prefecture, district, city, township, town, borough, parish, municipality, shire and village. However all these names are often used informally in countries where they do not describe a legal local government entity.
Local government of the United States refers to the governments at the city, town, village, borough, or civil township level in the United States of America. In the more general sense, local government also refers to county government as well.
It must be noted that under the federal system of the United States, State government, though it might generally appear to be classed as a type of "local government" by foreign observers from unitary states, is generally differentiated from local governments as the several States possess sovereignty within the Federal union, while local governments are not sovereign in any way, shape, or form, even within their respective states; on the contrary, they are governmental corporations chartered by (and whose charters may be revoked by) the legislature of the State whose boundaries they are within.
The most complex system is in England, the result of numerous reforms and reorganisation over the centuries.
England is subdivided on different levels:
The top level of local government within England are the nine regions. Each region has a government office and assorted other institutions. Only the London region has a directly elected administration. Only one other regional referendum has been held to date to seek consent for the introduction direct elections elsewhere - in the northeast of England - and this was soundly rejected by the electorate.
The layers of government below the regions are mixed.
Historic counties still exist with adapted boundaries, although in the 1990s some of the districts within the counties became separate unitary authorities and a few counties have been disbanded completely. There are also metropolitan districts in some areas which are similar to unitary authorities. In Greater London there are 32 London boroughs which are a similar concept.
Counties are further divided into districts (also known as boroughs in some areas).
Districts are divided into wards for electoral purposes.
Districts may also contain parishes and town council areas with a small administration of their own.
Other area classifications are also in use, such as health service and Lord-Lieutenant areas.
Northern Ireland is divided into 26 districts. Local government in Northern Ireland does not carry out the same range of functions as those in the rest of the United Kingdom. The Northern Irish Department of the Environment has announced plans to decrease the number of councils to 11.
Wales has a uniform system of 22 unitary authorities, referred to as counties or county boroughs. There are also communities, equivalent to parishes.
Local government in Scotland is arranged on the lines of unitary authorities, with the nation divided into 32 council areas.
According to its constitution, France has 3 levels of local government :
However, intercommunalities are now a level of government between municipalities and departments.
Paris (both a commune and a département) and Corsica are local government sui generis.
As a federal country, Germany is divided into a number of states (Länder in German), which used to have wide powers, but whose main remaining power today is their ability to veto federal laws through their Bundesrat representation. The system of local government is described in the article on States of Germany.
The Italian Constitution defines three levels of local government:
Major cities also have an extra tier of local government named Circoscrizione di Decentramento Comunale or, in some cities (e.g. Rome) Municipio.