Lexical problems of literary translation by the examples of the novel “Theater” by Somerset Maugham

     # She was as strong as a horse and never tired… (Ch.11, p.92). – Она была сильна, как лошадь, и никогда не уставала, … (С.75).

     # “Poor lamb, he must be as poor as a church mouse.” (Ch.11, p.101). – “Ах ты, ягненочек! Видно, беден, как церковная мышь.” (С.82).

     There are two kinds of equivalents: absolute and relative. Absolute equivalents of set expressions coincide with an original in every respect: grammatically, lexically and stylistically (to cast a glance – бросить взгляд, the bitter truth – горькая правда, to play with fire – играть с огнем, to read between lines – читать между строк).

     # The strange thing was that when she looked into her heart… (Ch.18, p.185). - И вот что самое странное: заглянув в свое сердце, … (С.142).

     # …she realized that it would be a bitter blow to his pride… (Ch.8, p.75). - …она понимала, каким это будет для него жестоким ударом по самолюбию,…(С.62).

     Relative equivalents of set expressions have grammatical or lexical differences from an original though they entirely coincide by meaning and stylistic (grass widow – соломенная вдова, to kill the goose that lays the golden eggs – убить курицу, несущую золотые яйца).

     # Of course some of those Middlepool manufacturers were rolling in money,… (Ch.3, p.36). - Конечно, некоторые из мидллпульских фабрикантов просто купаются в золоте,… (С.35).

     # …that she was head over ears in love with him. (Ch.4, p.40). - …что она прямо по уши влюблена в ее сына. (С.38).

     # He hankered for compliments…They were food and drink to him. (Ch.9, p.82). – Хлебом его не корми – только скажи, как он хорош. (С.67). 

     3.2.2. Using of Phraseological Variant (Analogue).

     There is a few figurative PUs in the English and Russian languages which coincide with both meaning and figurativeness. More often a translator has to use a Russian PU that has a similar meaning but based on another image (to work one’s fingers to the bone – работать, не покладая рук, to hit the bird in the eyes – попасть в точку, on foot’s horse – на своих двоих).

     # …he looked every inch a soldier. (Ch.7, p.63). - …он выглядел военным до кончиков ногтей. (С.54).

     # You can twist her round your little finger. (Ch.8, p.69). – А ты можешь из нее веревки вить. (С.58)

     # Gosh, I’m going down like a barrel of oysters. (Ch.4, p.41) – Черт возьми, все идет как по маслу! (С.38).

     # It was the only chink in his armour. (Ch.9, p.82). – Это была его ахиллесова пята. (С.68). 

     3.2.3. Replication of Phraseological Units.

     To keep figurativeness of an original in translation of a PU that has neither equivalent nor analogue in the Russian language sometimes a translator uses replication or literal transmission of the image which is in English PU. It is possible if the received expression is taken in by TR easily and naturally, in compliance with norms of the Russian language (liars must have good memories – лжецам нужна хорошая память, love me, love my dog – любишь меня, люби и мою собаку).

     # Men were creatures of habit; that gave women such a hold on them. (Ch.16, p.165). – Мужчины – рабы привычек, это помогает женщинам их удержать. (С.127).

     # Plain living and high thinking, Miss Phillips. (Ch.10, p.86). – Скромный образ жизни, высокий образ мыслей. (С.70). 

     3.2.4. Descriptive Translation.

     If an English PU has neither equivalent nor analogue in the Russian language and literal translation could lead to obscure literalism a translator has to refuse to convey figurativeness and use descriptive translation, i.e. to explain the meaning of a PU by free state words (a skeleton in the cupboard (closet) – семейная тайна; неприятность, скрываемая от посторонних).

     # Julia could almost have wished that it had failed like the others in order to take him down a peg or two. (Ch.9, p.78). (To take sb. down a peg or two - осадить к-л, сбить спесь).

     Джулия  чуть было не пожелала, чтобы эта пьеса  тоже провалилась, как  и две предыдущие, - так ей хотелось хоть немного сбить с него спесь.

     # For once his cunning found its match. (Ch.9, p.78). (To find one’s match – встретить достойного соперника). - Наконец-то Майкл встретил достойного противника. (С.64). 

     3.2.5. Translation of Specific National Phraseological Units.

     Translating this kind of figurative units a translator should be guided by three basic rules:

     1. To use literal translation only in the case if the English realities, which are a part of the PU, are well known to TR. For example: to carry coals to Newcastle – возить уголь в Ньюкасл, because everybody knows that Newcastle is a centre of England coal industry; but to dine with Duke Humphrey – остаться без обеда, но не обедать с герцогом Хемфри because TR doesn’t know who Duke Humphrey was.

     2. To try to convey English PUs with vivid national coloring by Russian ones without national coloring (he will not set the Thames on fire – он пороха не выдумает; to fight like Kilkenny cats – бороться не на жизнь, а на смерть; Queen Anne is dead! – Открыл Америку!).

     3. To use never Russian PUs which have specific national realities as they are unlikely to be applicable to English life. For example, to English PU to carry coals to Newcastle suits Russian one ездить в Тулу со своим самоваром, but it would be better here to use literal translation; or to the phrase what will Mrs. Drundy say? suits что будет говорить княгиня Марья Алексеевна? but что люди скажут is more appropriately.

     IV. Lexical Transformations and Methods of Creation of Contextual Substitutes. 

     4.1. Kinds of Lexical Transformations.

     Work of a translator on a word and a word-combination doesn’t add up to finding of equivalent or variant correspondence only. It involves also the work on lexical reforms or transformations. There are three kinds of lexical transformations:

     1) additions;

     2) omissions;

     3) substitutes. 

4.1.1. Additions.

     Semantic additions are inadmissible in translation. A translator can do semantic additions, i.e. explanations, only out of TT, in his/her notes that are taken outside of a text by footnotes. However, a translator has sometimes to add some words into the text so as not to break the norms of the Russian language.

     # Over the chimney-piece was an old copy of Lawrence’s portrait of Kemble as Hamlet. (Ch.1, p.14). – Над камином висела старая копия портрета Кембла в роли Гамлета кисти Лоренса. (С.18). (Лоренс Томас (1769-1830) – английский живописец-портретист – a footnote is at the foot of the page).

# They opened with a failure and this was succeeded by another. (Ch.9, p.77).

       Пьеса, которой они открыли тот сезон, потерпела фиаско, то же произошло и со следующей. (С.63).

     # She bustled Julia upstairs. (Ch.10, p.84). – Эви выпроводила Джулию из комнаты и погнала ее наверх. (С.69).   

     4.1.2. Omissions.

     Sometimes, a translator can do some omissions if it’s necessary in order to avoid breaking of linguistic or stylistic norms of the Russia language. However, every omission must be justified. It’s not allowed to abuse this rule and omit everything that is difficult to translate.

     It is typical of the English language using of paired synonyms. One of equivalent synonyms is omitted in translation as well as semantically surplus words. (The treaty was pronounced null and void. – Договор признан недействительным.).

     # …if he had been an actor who loved her so much and had loved her so long… (Ch.11, p.97). – Будь он, скажем, актером и люби ее так давно и сильно,… (С.78).

     # …and then went into the bathroom to wash her face and eyes. (Ch.11, p.96). - …и пошла в ванную комнату умыться. (С.78).

     # She leant back in the chair and turned her head aside. (Ch.11, p.95). – Она откинулась в кресле и отвернулась. (С.77). 

4.1.3. Substitutes.

     Substitutes can be lexical and contextual. Lexical substitute is replacement of single concrete words or word-combinations of SL with that of TL which are not their lexicographic correspondence, i.e. they have other lexical meaning than the words of ST. Characteristics of the context can force a translator refuse to use both variant and equivalent correspondences in translation. In that case he/she looks for the variant of translation that suits for the concrete case. That kind of translation is named contextual substitute.

     # …he held himself with an arched back to keep his belly from sagging. (Ch.9, p.81). - …и держался неестественно прямо, чтобы не отвисал живот. (С.67).

     # “Oh, well, it’s no good crying over spilt milk.”  (Ch.10, p.83). – “Потерянного не воротишь.”(C.69).

     Nature of a contextual substitute depends on characteristics of individual context and a translator has every time to look for special ways of translation. This task requires creative solution, therefore, it’s not possible to have fundamental. Nevertheless, there are same methods which are used for creating of contextual substitutes:

     1) method of concretization;

     2) method of generalization;

     3) method of antonymic translation;

     4) method of compensation;

     5) method of semantic development;

     6) method of complete interpretation. 

     4.2. Methods of Creating of Contextual Substitutes.

     4.2.1. Method of Concretization.

     Concretization represents substitution of a word of ST with more large meaning on the word of TL with narrower one. There are a lot of words in the English language with general wide meaning which should be concretized in translation. For example:

come – прибывать, приезжать, приходить, подходить, прилетать и т.д.

leave – уезжать, покидать, уходить, оставлять, улетать, вылетать и т.д.

provide – заготовлять, сберегать, снабжать, доставлять, обеспечивать, давать средства, принимать меры, готовиться, предусматривать, обуславливать и т.д.

     # …two of her front teeth were missing but, notwithstanding Julia’s offer, repeated for years, to provide her with new ones she would not have them replaced. (Ch.10, p.84).

     …у  нее не хватало  спереди двух зубов, но, несмотря на неоднократное предложение Джулии дать ей деньги на новые зубы, Эви не желала их вставлять. (С.69).

     By the example of the word thing that is met quite often in the novel it is seen how this word is concretized in different contexts.

     # “Extravagant little thing, aren’t you?...” (Ch.6, p.56). – “Мотовочка, вот ты кто.” (C.49).

     # “We know a thing or two about financing plays now.” (Ch.8, p.69). – “Мы с тобой уже хорошо знаем, при каких условиях финансируются пьесы.” (C.58).

     # …and she thought of him as a nice old thing. (Ch.11, p.93). - …и она думала о нем, как о добром старом дядюшке. (С.75).

     # If he tried that sort of thing she’d play the outrage heroine on him, … (Ch.11, p. 93). – Если он попробует с ней такие штучки, она разыграет оскорбленную добродетель…(С.76).

       # Then Julia did a disgraceful thing. (Ch.11, p.94). – И тут Джулия совершила позорный поступок. (С.77).

     # When tempers were frayed his good humour, his real kindliness, smoothed thing over. (Ch.9, p.79). – Когда у них начинали сдавать нервы, его добродушие, его искренняя доброжелательность сглаживали все острые углы. (С.66).

     # But he was not a man who let a thing drop when he had set his mind to it. (Ch.8, p.69). – Но Майкл был не из тех, кто легко отступается от того, что задумал. (С.58). 

     4.2.2. Method of Generalization.

     Generalization is substitution of a word with more narrow meaning on the word with larger one. This method is opposite to the method of concretization.

     # …but he wanted to be his own master and now in the last year of his articles he had broken away and taken this tiny flat. (Ch.11, p.102). - …но он захотел быть сам себе хозяином и сейчас, в последний год учения, отделился от семьи и снял эту крошечную квартирку. (С.82).

     The word article as a noun has the meanings статья, параграф, пункт, соглашение, договор, вещь, предмет, артикль. The meaning договор suits more because there is also a verb article – отдавать по контракту в учение. Combined these meanings the translator extended the meaning of the word article and translated it as учение though this word has its own translation in English: studies, learning, and apprenticeship. 

4.2.3. Method of antonymic translation.

     The essence of this method is replacement of affirmative construction with negative one and vice versa that is accompanied by corresponding lexical substitute of SL unit with its antonym in TL.

     # “Oh, my love, don’t you know there isn’t anything in the world I wouldn’t do for you?...” (Ch.8, p.72). – “Ах, моя любовь, разве вы не знаете, что я сделала бы для вас все на свете!” (С.60).

     # Julia wondered why servants stayed with them. (Ch.8, p.76). – Джулия не понимала, почему прислуга их не бросает. (С.62).

     # “Oh, I know people always lie about their debts,” she said with a laugh. (Ch.14, p.129). – “О, я знаю, люди никогда не признаются, сколько они задолжали,” – сказала она со смехом. (С.101).

     Metaphrase (or literal translation) of these sentences would contradict to stylistic norms of the Russian language and do them clumsy.

     # He was a trifle excited – but that is not unusual with him. – Он был несколько взволнован, но он почти всегда такой.

     Here we have litotes – an affirmative utterance in a negative form. Litotes is widespread in the English language owing to a good deal of negative prefixes. It can be translated literally not always as in the Russian language the negative не and the negative prefix не- coincide in sounding. The words with the prefix не- go rarely together with the negative particle не because of such combination is discordant.