Лекции по "Лексикологии"

Semantic analysis.

The first function of the word as a unit of communication is realized through its meaning, that is why meaning (among other characteristics) is the most impotent one. The branch of linguistics which specialises in the study of meaning is called semantics.

The modem approach to semantics is based on the assumption (npeдположение) that the inner form of the word (its meaning) is a structure which is called the semantic structure (семантическая структура) of the word. The semantic structure doesn't present only one concept, on the contrary most of the words convey several concepts and have a corresponding number of meanings. A word with several meanings is calles polysemantic. A word with one meaning is calles monosemantic.

Most English words are polysemamic. The system of meanings of any polysemantic word develops

gradually, mostly over the centuries, as more and more new meanings (JICB –лексико-семантические варианты) either appear or the old meanings disappear.

When analysing the semantic structure of a polysemantic word it is necessary to distinguish between two levels of analysis: on the 1st level we analyse a system of meanings (i.e. a semantic structure of any polysemantic word; on the 2nd level we analyse a system of semantic components within one meaning (i.e. a semantic structure of one meaning – структура значения).

Let's analyse the semantic analysis on the first level, where the semantic structure of the word is treated as a system of meanings. The semantic structure of the noun 'fire' can be presented by the scheme:

Fire n. = 1. Flame (пламя = portion of burning gas)

2. instant of destructive burning: a forest fire

3. burning material in a stove: fireplace: a camp fire (Koстep)

4. shooting of guns: open/ceasefire

5. strong feeling, passion, enthusiasm: speech lacking fire

So the meaning 1 conveys the concept in the most general way whereas meanings 2-5 are associated with special circumstances, aspects of the same phenomenon. Meaning 1 is called the main meaning (ochobhoc 3Ha-H6Hne) and it presents the centre of the semantic structure of the word, holding it together. Meanings 2-5 are called secondary meanings (второстепенное значение).

If we take the word 'dull', its semantic structure looks differently:

Dull adj.=

Uninteresting, boring Stupid Not bright Not loud  Not active Seeing badly Hearing badly

deficient in interest  deficient in intellect  deficient in colour  deficient in sound  deficient in activity  deficient in eyesight  deficient in hearing

 

The scheme shows that the centre holding together the semantic structure of the word is not one of the meanings, but a certain semantic component which can be singled out within one separate meaning.

Each separate meaning can also be structurally analysed, i.e. different sets of semantic components, comprising this meaning, can be found - denotational and connotational. Connotational components include emotive and evaluative, imaginable and intensifying, stylistic and pragmatic ones. Pragmatic components convey information on the "time and space", the participants and type of communication. Here are some examples of semantic components in the structure of the meaning: ape v =to imitate, behave like an ape (imaginable and evaluative component), MejBeflb = animal which likes honey and looks for it [мед + ведать] (денотативный компанент), wind n = air in rapid natural motion (intensifying component), prestige n = good reputation (evaluative component), order v = to give instructions to subordinates (pragmatic component).

So the semantic structure of a word can be investigated at two levels: 1) of different meanings, 2) of semantic components within each separate meaning. For a monosemantic word the first level is excluded. The older a word is the better developed is its semantic structure. The normal pattern of a word's semantic development is from monosemy to a simple semantic structure with two or three meanings, and further development to a more complex semantic structure.

A good and reliable key to the meaning of the word is context, i.e. the word's linear relationships with other words (combinability or collocability). But context is not the ultimate (окончательный) criterion for meanings and the contextual analysis should be used in combination with other criteria:

definitional, transformational, distributional analyses. Yet the contextual analysis remains one of the main investigative methods for determining the semantic structure of a word.

Causes of developing new meanings

The first group of causes is historical (or extra-linguistic): new notions and phenomena must be named. We know 3 ways for providing new names: 1) making new words, 2) borrowing foreign ones, 3) filling vocabulary gaps by applying old words to new objects or notions.

With the appearance of railways in England 'carriage' (vehicle drawn by horses) received a new meaning of "a railway car". The words 'stalls', 'box', 'pit', 'circle¹ had existed before the first theatres appeared in England. With their appearance the gaps in the vocabulary were filled with these words which developed new meanings:

'stalls'- napтep, 'box' - ложa, 'pit'- амфитеатр, 'circle' - бельэтаж.

New meanings can also be developed due to linguistic factors, when a complete change of meaning can be caused by the influence of other words, mostly synonyms: the word 'deer' in Old English denoted 'any beast'. In that meaning it collided with the borrowed word 'animal' and changed its meaning to a more concrete modern one - 'a certain type of beast - олень).

The process of developing a new meaning (or a change of meaning) is called transference (перенос значения). In any case of semantic change it is not the meaning but the word is being transferred from one referent onto another (e.g.: from a horse-drawn vehicle onto a railway car). The result of such a transference is the appearance of a new meaning.

Two types of transference are distinguished depending on two types of logical associations underlying the semantic process. In transference based on similarity (linguistic metaphor – сходство, подобие ), a new meaning appears as a result of associating two objects: 'neck' - part of a body    -à       the neck of a bottle; 'branch' - subdivision of      tree    à  branch of science; 'star' - bright heavenly body    -à   famous actor or actress    --à             football star.

The meanings formed through this type of transference are often found in the informal strata of the vocabulary: 'a red-headed boy' is sure to be nicknamed by his schoolmates 'carrot'. The slang meaning of words 'nut', 'onion' is ' head', of 'saucers' - 'eyes'.

In transference based on contiguity (linguistic metonymy -смежность) the association is based upon psychological links between different objects and phenomena. Old English 'sad' (satisfied with food) developed a connotation 'oversatisfied with food' and 'not happy, having physical discomfort'. The next shift of meaning was from 'physical discomfort' to 'spiritual discontent' and further to modern 'sorrowful'. By the 'foot' of a bed, the 'arms' of a chair we mean the place where the feet/arms rest when one lies/sits ib a bed/chair. By the 'leg of a table (chair, bed, etc)' we mean the part which serves as a support due to the original association with 'the leg of man or animal'.

Meanings produced through transference based on contiguity originate sometimes from geographical or proper names. 'China' (dishes made of porcelain) originated from the name of the country which was the birthplace of porcelain. 'Tweed' (coarse wool cloth) got its name from the river Tweed and 'cheviot' (fine wool cloth) - from the Cheviot hills in England. The name of a painter is transferred on his pictures: a Matisse = a painting by Matisse.

Broadening (or generalisation) of meaning

The verb 'arrive' (French borrowing) began its life as 'to land, to come to shore'. In Modem English it has widened its combinability and developed the general meaning 'to come'. It's interesting to trace the history of 'girl'. In Middle English it had the meaning of 'a small child of either sex', then the word developed into the meaning of a small child of the female sex', so that the range of meaning was narrowed. In its further semantic development the word gradually broadened its meaning: 1) it meant not only 'a female child', but also 'a young unmarried woman', and later 'any young woman' and now 'any woman, even not young'.

Narrowing of meaning

Boy: 'any young person of the male sex' > 'servant of the male sex'. Meat: ' any food' > 'a certain food product'. Deer: 'any beast' > 'a certain kind of beast'.

Degradation of meaning

Gossip, god parent' > 'one who talks scandal, speaks ill of people'. Villain: 'farm servant, serf (крепостной) > 'vile person (злодей).

Semantically speaking the second meaning developed a negative evaluative component (connotation), which was absent in the first meaning.

Elevation of meaning Fond:

'foolish' > 'loving, affectionate'. Nice: 'foolish' > 'fine, good'. Knight: 'manservant' > 'noble, courageous man'.

Semantically speaking the second meaning developed a positive evaluative component (connotation), whereas the first meaning had a negative evaluative component.

Marshal: 'manservant attending horses' > 'the highest rank in the army'.

Lord: 'master of the house, head of the family' > 'baronet' (aristocratic title).

Lady: 'mistress of the house, married woman' > 'wife or daughter of baroner'.

Semantically speaking the second meaning developed a positive evaluative pragmatic component (connotation), which was absent in the first meaning. 

      LECTURE 6

      Phraseology. Lexicography. American English. 

      Phraseology: word-groups with transferred meanings.

      Phraseological units, or idioms, represent the most expressive part of the language's vocabulary, because amusing sketches of the nation's customs, traditions and prejudices, recollections of its past history, fairy-tales are collected here. In modern linguistic there is a certain confusion about the terminology connected with these word-groups. The term "phraseological unit" ("фразеологическая единица") was introduced by academician V.V. Vinogradov. The theory of English phraseology was also worked out by our scientists. Western scholars prefer the term "idioms". There are some other terms used to denote this phenomenon: set-expressions, set-phi ses, fixed word-groups.

      It's rather difficult to differenciate between a set-expression and a free word-group. The terms given above show that the basic criteria of differenciation  stability of the lexical components and grammatical structure. Phraseological units (ph.u.)  are habitually defined as non-motivated word-groups, that cannot be freely made up in speech but are reproduced as ready-made units, they are not created at the very moment of speeking, unlike free word-groups which components can change according to the needs of speakers. Ex.: a blue flower (a free word-group) vs. a blue-stocking (a ph. u.). 

      The traditional and oldest principle of classification ph.u-s. is based on their original content ('thematic principle), i.e. particular sphere of human activity or natural phenomena. So L.Smith gives groups of idioms either used by sailors, hunters, etc. or associated with domestic and wild animals, agriculture, cooking, sports, arts, etc. Smith points out that ph.u-s associated with the sea and the life of seamen are especially numerous in English: to be all at sea (to be unable to understand), to sink or swim (to fail or succeed), in deep waters (in trouble or danger), in low water, on the rocks (in strained financial circumstances).

      By origin the greatest number of ph.u. is connected with traditions and customs of England: to cut with a shilling (лишить наследства), night cup (a drink before going to sleep); the next source is Shakespeare's works : to give the devil his due (отдать должное), the green-eyed monster (ревность), smth. is wrong in the state of Danmark, etc.                

      Due to the structural principle, i.e. their semantic and grammatical inseparability phraseological units can be classified into nominal and communicative. This structural principle is based on the ability of a ph.u. to perform the same syntactical functions as words. To nominal belong substantive (noun), verbal , attributive and adverbial ph.u-s.

      Substantive ph.u. denote 'thingness' and are used to denote everyday activities of people, their meaning can be easily deduced or be wholly idiomatic: dog's life, cat-and-dog life, call love, white lie, red tape (бюрократия), backnumber (ретроград, отсталый человек), babies in the wood (простаки, наивные люди), Fleet street (английская пресса), hot dogs (сосиски), a hearty oak (каменное сердце), mamma's darling (маменькин сынок). Some linguists admit some structural change in a ph.u.: 'the promised land' = ''the land of promise'.

      Verbal ph.u. fulfil the functions of verbs in sentence: to smell the rat (чувствовать что-то недоброе), tо run for one's life (спасать жизнь), to talk through one's hat (мямлить).   

      Attribute ph.u. describe qualities of objects: high and mighty, safe and sound, brand new, etc. In this group the so called comparative word-groups are particularly expressive   and amusing in their unexpected associations: (as) cool as a cucumber, (as) nervous as a cat, (as) weak as a kitten, (as) good as gold (usu. about children), (as) large as life, (as) slippery as an eel, (as) drunk as ah owl, (as) mad as a hare in March, etc.                  

      Adverbial ph.u. perform the function of an adverb in a sentence and have firm stability: between the devil and the deep sea (меж двух огней), neither here nor there (ни к месту), by heart (наизусть), by hook or by crook (ни шитьем, так катаньем), in cold blood (хладнокровно).                     

      Interjeclional ph.u.: my god! Goodnew gracious! Good heavens!

      Communicative  ph.u-s make sentence themselves. These are various sayings and proverbs. They mау bе classified according to the type of sentence they form: declarative (It's all Greek to me - китайская грамота). Queen Ann is dead - (это не новость), interrogative (Can the lapper change his spots? How do you do?), imperative -(Hold your horses - Осторожно на повороте).  

      Academician Vinogradov's classification is based on the degree of semantic cohesion (связность) betweeh the components of ph.u-s:

      -phraseological combinations with a partially changed meaning which can be deduced: to take smth for granted to be good at smth, bosom friends, to have a bite, to stick to one's word, etc.;

      - phraseological unities with a completely changed meaning which can be deduced from the meaning of the constituent parts: to catch at a straw, to lose one's head, to lose one's heart to smb, the last drop, etc.

      - phraseological fusions with completely changed meaning which cannot be deduced from the meaning of the constituent parts (denominated units): to come a cropper ( ~ to come to disaster), at sixes and sevens (~ in confusion), to set one's cap at smb.(~ to try and attract a man), to show the white feather (~ to show one's cowardice). 

      The classificaiton of ph.u-s suggested by prof. A.Kunin is based on the combined structural-semantic principle and also considers the degree of stability of ph.u.  Acc. to Kunin there are 4 classes of ph.u:

      - nominative, including one meaningful word: well and good, wear and tear, as the crow flies, etc;     

      - nominative-communicative: to break the ice - the ice is broken;

      - ph.u. which are neither nominative nor communicative and include interjectional word-groups;        

      - communicative ph.u. represented by proverbs and sayings.

      Thus phraseological units differ from word-groups in the lack of motivation, structural stability, word-equivalent function, idiomaticity. 

      Lexicography

        Types of dictionaries

      Lexicography is the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries. A dictionary is a systematically arranged list of socialized linguistic forms, compiled from the speech habits of a given speech community and commented on by the author in such a way that reader understands the meaning of each separate form and is informed of the relevant facts, concerning the function of that form in the community. The functions of linguistic forms and their meanings are so diverse, that it is normal that there are various type of dictionaries. One of the most important principles of division among dictionaries is diachronic and synchronic.

      Diachronic dictionaries are primarily concerned with the history and development of words in respect of their forms and meanings. Among them we can find etymological and historical dictionaries. Historical dictionaries focus their attention on the changes in the form and meaning of words within a period of time, for which there is historical evidence at hand. Etymological dictionaries focus their attention on the origin of words. They deal with prehistory of words. The prehistory often requires the origin of the word in other languages. 'Clinic' - [comes from Greek <'a bed'], 'Scene' - [comes from Greek < 'a tent']. In a historical dictionary the semantic developments are extremely important.

      The purpose of synchronic dictionaries is to deal with the lexical stock of language oh a certain stage of historical development. The terms 'synchronic' and 'contemporary' are not equal, as 'contemporary' relates to the present day and  'synchronic' - to the present century.

      The second division of dictionaries is into general and restricted. General dictionaries are based on the principle which is concerned with the national standard language. There are two types of general dictionaries: standard-descriptive and overall-descriptive.

      Standard-descriptive dictionaries can be characterized as describing the standard national language used at the point of time, when the dictionary is being compiled, and it is expected to be used some time after its publication. This dictionary points to the norms of using words. It describes what is generally regular, normal and exercises on using the words. It does not describe dialectal forms, archaisms, origin of words. Overall-descriptive dictionaries include all the information about words. Such a dictionary will tend to register occasional applications (применение), author's words, technical words. It may be used while reading books of two or three centuries. Most frequently standard-descriptive and overall-descriptive dictionaries are combined in one publication.