Destination image formation

Distance variable, which refers to socio-demographic characteristics reflected by the country of residence, is also believed to be an influencing factor of the image formation process (Joppe et. al. 2002, Gallerza et. al 2001). According to Erfurt and Johnsen (2003), the closer people live to a destination, the more critical they are. Martin and Bosque (2008) have found out and people from different countries have different perception of the same destination resulting from their dissimilar cultural values. Similarly, Beerli and Martin (2004) argue that cognitive and affective components of images people hold about destinations are influenced by their countries of origin.

Word of mouth

The familiarity degree of a person with a destination is described by Fakeye and Crompton (1991) as an important affecting factor of a destination image. The authors state that future, first-time and repeat visitors do not always share the same views on a place they choose as a travel destination.

Even though the majority of the elements affecting the image formation can be manipulated by DMOs, there are still those which are out of their control (Erfurt and Johnsen, 2003). The weather, attacks and accidents cannot be influenced by destination managers and may have a negative impact on the image of the country (ibid.). But destinations can face the consequences of any image distortion through implementing proper destination marketing strategies paying attention to both traditional promotional efforts and the use of Internet technologies (Erfurt and Johnsen, 2003). McCartney (2008) urges destination managers to pay attention to the virtual representation of destinations, since the website contents can directly influence the images of potential visitors. The Internet is not only a source of information anymore, it is now a platform for consumers to interact and share their experiences (Dwivedi, 2009). By the growing popularity of the Internet among customers, word of mouth has acquired another form known as “a word of mouse”, allowing people to exchange information easier and quicker than before and marking consumer-generated data as an additional powerful information source of destination image (Govers and Go, 2003; Choi et al., 2007).

Ritchie and Crouch (2003) identify ‘core resources’ and ‘attractors’ that are fundamental in motivating a person to choose a certain destination. Taking into account that the tourist decisions are also known to be dependent on images (Bowen and Clarke, 2009), it may be suggested that these factors have an influence on the overall perception of the destination (destination image) as well. These ‘key motivators’ are presented under seven categories in the Table 1 (Ritchie and Crouch, 2003).

Table N.... Key elements contributing to the destination appeal.

Source: Ritchie and Crouch, 2003.

2.2.5. Destination image measurement.

Destinations can be effectively marketed if people taking this responsibility are able to identify the images tourists associate with them (Chon, 1990). Being a significant element of understanding tourist travel behaviour and playing an important role in the design of destination marketing strategies, the concept of destination image needs to be thoroughly measured by a specially designed methodology (Echtner, Ritchie, 2003). Due to the fact image consists of various aspects, complicated conceptualisation of the phenomenon leads to the implementation of various measuring tools (Stepchenkova and Mills, 2010).

Structured and unstructured measurement techniques are the ones most commonly used by destination image researchers (Pike, 2002). The studies based on structured measurement techniques measure the cognitive and affective components of a destination image by implementing semantic differentials and/or Likert scale formats (Gartner, 1989; Milman & Pizam, 1995; Baloglu & Brinberg, 1997). Echtner and Ritchie (1991) revealed that researchers mostly prefer to employ quantitative techniques.

Tasci et al. (2007) state that people’s attitudes and images of a place may change over time under an influence of affective components. In connection to this, destination image researchers need to monitor and evaluate the images of a place periodically through longitudinal studies in order to identify the factors leading to the modification of people’s perceptions (ibid.). Choi et al. (1999) explain the lack of such studies by a one-off nature of the majority of destination image studies.

Researchers focusing their works on destination image formation more frequently apply quantitative research methods, due to the fact of qualitative methods being more time consuming and costly (Jenkins, 1999; Pike, 2002). That may be the reason of greater attention paid to cognitive component of destination image rather than to affective images (Stepchenkova and Mills, 2010). The review of literature related to destination image, undertaken by Pike (2002), prove that Likert-type scales are the most commonly used measuring instrument of cognitive elements. Some authors, eg. Baloglu and Brinberg (1997), adopt semantic differential scales to measure affective image components.

2.3. The relationship between mega-events and destination image.

Gunn (1989) argues that although organic image of a destination can rarely be changed, its induced image may be altered extensively through promotions and via media. Showing his solidarity with this, Getz (2005) points out the significance of events on shaping the image of the host country which result in its favourable reception by the potential tourists. Despite the voluminous investments usually made for attracting visitors, the publicity value of events, even with short duration, is completely justifiable (ibid).

Figure 1. Economic and tourism roles of events

Source: Getz, 2005

Mega sports events are treated by destinations as a stage for building a global status of a country or city hosting them (Kapareliotis, 2010). Such mega events like Olympic Games can attract a flood of foreign tourists, as well as domestic visitors to a place if they are well-organised (L’Etang, 2006). Even if the main motivation of tourists is to participate in the event, they also spend money to see the destination, and frequently decide to spend more time there than the event requires (Bauer et al., 2005). Ritchie and Smith (1991) investigated the impact a mega-event can have on the host country. They conclude that they attract global attention and hence lead to an increased awareness and can positively affect the image of the place, which will strengthen its competitiveness in the future.

2.4. The identity of events

As an aftermath of events different impacts are known to emerge: they may form or change the image of the hosting destination, motivate travellers to visit it, contribute to the infrastructure and communications development, create new job places, and adding to the gross domestic product they influence the economic sector of the host nation as well (De Groote, 2005). "Event tourism must, therefore, seek to enhance the attractiveness of individual events and festivals and to use them to enhance destination attractiveness,[he also states] Successful events can enhance the image of the destination, generating an important but often unmeasurable increase in general-purpose tourism." (Getz 1991).

2.4.1. Defining events

2.4.2. Classification of events

Events are more often used as off-season tourism facilitators and countries are now increasingly engaging in hosting all kinds of events and festivals for the benefit of their tourism industry and as part of tourism marketing (Erfurt and Johnsen, 2003).  Potential repeat visitors become more familiar with the destinations through conventions they organise. Satisfied tourists are likely not only to spread a word about an area hosting an event, but also to repeatedly visit it afterwards (Erfurt and Johnsen, 2003).

Events may have different categories depending on their size and scale (Bodwin et al., 2001). According to their size, events are categorised into mega-events, hallmark events and major events (ibid.). Mega-events can be distinguished from other types of events by visitation, cost and psychological criteria (Getz, 2005). The volume of visitors should not be less than 1 million people, with the capital cost of $500 million and they need to be considered as a ‘must see’ occurrence (Getz, 2005)

2.5. Mega-sports events

Mega-events are mainly described as major happenings generating high levels of tourism and profitability for residents or a destination (Getz, 1997, Gratton et al., 2000).Jago et al. (2010) define mega events as ‘large-scale events marked by global publicity, attracting substantial international visitation and associated with large-scale economic, social or environmental impacts’. Similarly, Roche (2001) emphasises ‘mass popular appeal and international significance’ of mega-events, as well as their culture-related nature and dramatic character in creating awareness. Countries involve in severe competitions to bid for hosting mega-events with the aim of enhancing awareness and to create interest using their ability to acquire prestige in limited duration (Ritchie, 1984). Thus it can be suggested that a mega-event has a certain distinctive nature and it should match the following criteria (Mintel, 2010):

1. It should run during a fixed and short period of time
2. It should ne high-profile and attracting the worldwide interest
3. It must have a sustainable and measurable economic outcome
4. It must leave a long-lusting legacy for the host nation
5. It requires the political and governmental involvement
6. It needs to be a part of a host country’s strategic policies

and Higham (2005) stress the important role of mega-events stating that they have the most direct links with sport which can be evidenced from national or regional championship competitions (American Football’s Superbowl) and international mega-sports events (Olympic Games). Sporting events give an opportunity for the host country to attract potential tourists by presenting an appealing image (Mohan, 2009).

2.5.1. Concept of definitions

"Major one-time or recurring events of limited duration, developed primarily to enhance the awareness, appeal and profitability of a tourism destination in the short and/or long term. Such events rely for their success on uniqueness, status, or timely significance to create interest and attract attention." (Ritchie 1984). Mega-events, by way of their size or significance, are those that yield extraordinarily high levels of tourism, media coverage, prestige, or economic impact for the host community or destination." (Getz, 1997 cited in  Beritelli et al., 2004).

2.5.2. The possible impacts of mega-sports events

Barghchi, Omar and Aman (2009) have identified short-term and long-term impacts of hosting mega-sports events from an entrepreneurial perspective; consequently, they were concentrating on the economic impacts of events mainly. They argue that events can have both costs and benefits for the economy of the hosting destination. According to the authors, mega-sports events result in expenses related to the operational costs, direct investment (facilities), indirect investment (general infrastructure of the area), and intangible costs (crowding, disruption). Nevertheless, benefits brought by them are prevailing and include income from event-related investment, income from event-related consumption and intangible benefits such as the development of local environment, a spirit of healthy life among the local population, and social benefits such as national pride, urban transformation and a sense of inclusion in the event (ibid.). Describing the long-term economic impacts of mega-sports events on the hosting destination, Barghchi et al. (2009) mainly focus on the lasting legacy left for cities and countries. They suggest that in order to have a long-lusting effect of facilities and infrastructure built especially for a sporting event, they need to be included into the marketing strategy of the destination. The researchers conclude that hosting mega-sports events and investing in them may have numerous economic, as well as social impacts, such as enhanced community image, transformed national or local identities, better infrastructure and facilities, improved social welfare, and a development of tourism. However, as stated by Coates and Humphreys (2008), the literature does not always agree with the positive economic impacts of hosting mega-sports events due to the lack of considerable evidence of increasing job supply, tax revenues or growing incomes for communities.

According to De Groote (2005), who undertook a study devoted to the investigation of economic and tourism impacts of such a mega-event as Olympic Games, even though the economic impacts of hosting sporting events may appear obvious through improved infrastructure and building new facilities, yet they need to be ‘offset against’ other impacts of the Games. Moreover, as indicated by Baade and Matheson (2004), mega-sports events’ success in attracting tourists does not necessarily result in an economic boost for a nation, often leaving negative impact on the host destination economy. This statement is supported by Burton (2003), who claims that despite the common justification of hosting mega-sports events by financial benefits, they rarely achieve break-even position. If countries bid for mega-sports events for economic reasons only, ignoring other aspects, the true cost of hosting an event may exceed its economic value, whereas the consideration of socio-cultural and environmental impacts of events adds up the potential to reach success (De Groote, 2005). The results of the research conducted by Saayman, Saayman and du Plessis (2005) suggest that countries hosting mega-sports events for economic benefits need to target foreign visitors, as they spend more than domestic participants of events. They also advise to consider such factors that affect tourists spending patterns as their age, nationality, income, visit numbers and others.

Hosting-mega-sports event can have substantial impact on the social life of the hosting community. Thus, Preuss (2006) states that sporting events is beneficial for raising the knowledge and skills of the local people. The training programmes for volunteers providing basic skills of hospitality, knowledge and skills acquired during preparation for an event or in the process of bidding for it, and the skills gained by citizens for creating a safe environment while hosting an event have a positive impact on the tourism development of a destination (ibid). Examining social impacts of the Sydney Olympics, Waitt (2003) suggest that mega-sports events can be a powerful instrument of generating patriotism among the local residents and giving them a sense of community. However, the researchers also remind of the negative social impacts of such events which may be reflected in the residents’ opinions that mega-sport events are followed by the increase of taxation and living costs, and it is regarded as an ‘economic burden’ by them. A number of researchers (Kim and Petrick, 2005; Fredline and Faulkner, 1999) agree that overcrowding, noise, traffic congestion, disruption of the local community’s lifestyle may be considered as additional negative impacts of hosting mega events.

2.6. The function of events in the process of destination image formation.

Kim and Morrison (2005) explored the image changes characteristic for three nationalities as a consequence of the World Cup held in South Korea in 2002. The results of their study show that the images of tourists before and after the event were different, with the latter being more favourable. The mega-sports event improved the image of the country by lessening the threat associated with safety in the area, and brought forward more positive images of the country than prior to the World Cup. The authors also have found that the perceptions of foreign tourists were different depending on their education level, age, occupation and familiarity degree with the host destination. Another study based on the same case of the World Cup in Korea undertaken by Lee,C., Lee, Y. and Lee, B. (2005) support the positive impact of the mega-sports event on the image of the country. The researchers observed the following favourable country-related image dimensions of the tourists who attended the World Cup in Korea: relaxing atmosphere, beautiful nature, personal security, friendly local people, good shopping facilities, green environment, improved accommodation facilities, exciting night life, favourable climate, ease of communication with locals, convenient public transports, delicious food, informative events and festivals, and fair travel costs.

Chalip and Costa (2005) suggest that sporting events need to be considered as an image building part of the marketing plan of a host destination. In terms of branding policy, mega-sport events may be successful if destination marketers base their plans of events portfolio on a mix of sporting and cultural events appropriate for a destination and projecting a desired image of the host community (ibid.). The authors emphasise the importance of identifying the perceptions of different target markets to assure that the image messages promoted by means of sporting events are interpreted in a desired way.